Methodological framework to select plant species for controlling rill and gully erosion: application to a Mediterranean ecosystem

Many studies attribute the effects of vegetation in reducing soil erosion rates to the effects of the above‐ground biomass. The effects of roots on topsoil resistance against concentrated flow erosion are much less studied. However, in a Mediterranean context, where the above‐ground biomass can temporarily disappear because of fire, drought or overgrazing, and when concentrated flow erosion occurs, roots can play an important role in controlling soil erosion rates. Unfortunately, information on Mediterranean plant characteristics, especially root characteristics, growing on semi‐natural lands, and knowledge of their suitability for gully erosion control is often lacking. A methodological framework to evaluate plant traits for this purpose is absent as well. This paper presents a methodology to assess the suitability of plants for rill and gully erosion control and its application to 25 plant species, representative for a semi‐arid Mediterranean landscape in southeast Spain. In this analysis determination of suitable plants for controlling concentrated flow erosion is based on a multi‐criteria analysis. First, four main criteria were determined, i.e. (1) the potential of plants to prevent incision by concentrated flow erosion, (2) the potential of plants to improve slope stability, (3) the resistance of plants to bending by water flow and (4) the ability of plants to trap sediments and organic debris. Then, an indicator or a combination of two indicators was used to assess the scores for the four criteria. In total, five indicators were selected, i.e. additional root cohesion, plant stiffness, stem density, the erosion‐reducing potential during concentrated flow and the sediment and organic debris obstruction potential. Both above‐ and below‐ground plant traits were taken into account and measured to assess the scores for the five indicators, i.e. stem density, sediment and organic debris obstruction potential, modulus of elasticity of the stems, moment of inertia of the stems, root density, root diameter distribution, root area ratio and root tensile strength. The scores for the indicators were represented on amoeba diagrams, indicating the beneficial and the weak plant traits, regarding to erosion control. The grasses Stipa tenacissima L. and Lygeum spartum L. and the shrub Salsola genistoides Juss. Ex Poir. amongst others, were selected as very suitable plant species for rill and gully erosion control. Stipa tenacissima can be used to re‐vegetate abandoned terraces as this species is adapted to drought and offers a good protection to concentrated flow erosion and shallow mass movements. Lygeum spartum can be used to vegetate concentrated flow zones or to obstruct sediment inflow to channels at gully outlets. Stipa tenacissima and Salsola genistoides can be used to stabilize steep south‐facing slopes. The methodology developed in this study can be applied to other plant species in areas suffering from rill and gully erosion. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Hydraulic properties of concentrated flow of a bank gully in the dry‐hot valley region of southwest China

To quantify spatiotemporal variation in hydraulic properties of bank gully concentrated flow, a series of scour experiments were run under water discharge rates ranging from 30 to 120 l min^?1. Concentrated flows were found to be turbulent and supercritical in the upstream catchment area and downstream gully beds. As discharge increased, values of the soil erosion rate, Reynolds number (Re), shear stress, stream power, and flow energy consumption (ΔE) increased while values of the Froude number (Fr) and the Darcy–Weisbach friction factor (resistance f ) did not. With the exception of gully headcut collapse under discharge rates of 60, 90, and 120 l min^?1, a declining power function trend (P < 0.05) in the soil erosion rate developed in the upstream catchment area, headcuts, and downstream gully beds. However, increasing trends were observed in temporal variations of hydraulic properties for downstream gully beds and the upstream catchment area. Despite significant differences in temporal variation between the soil erosion rate and hydraulic property values, relative steady state conditions of the soil erosion rate and ΔE were attained following an initial period of adjustment in the upstream catchment area, headcuts, and downstream gully beds under different discharge rates. A logarithmic growth of flow energy consumption per unit soil loss (ΔE_u) was observed in bank gullies and the upstream catchment area as the experiment progressed, further illustrating the actual reason behind the discrepancy in temporal variation between soil erosion rates and ΔE. Results demonstrate that ΔE can be used to estimate headcut erosion soil loss, but further quantitative studies are required to quantify coupling effects between hydraulic properties and vertical variation in soil mechanical properties on temporal variation for bank gully soil erosion rates. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Predicting physical equations of soil detachment by simulated concentrated flow in Ultisols (subtropical China)

Soil detachment in concentrated flow is due to the dislodging of soil particles from the soil matrix by surface runoff. Both aggregate stability and shear strength of the topsoil reflect the erosion resistance of soil to concentrated runoff, and are important input parameters in predicting soil detachment models. This study was conducted to develop a formula to predict soil detachment rate in concentrated flow by using the aggregate stability index (As), root density (R_d) and saturated soil strength (σ_s) in the subtropical Ultisols region of China. The detachment rates of undisturbed topsoil samples collected from eight cultivated soil plots were measured in a 3.8 m long, 0.2 m wide hydraulic flume under five different flow shear stresses (τ = 4.54, 9.38, 15.01, 17.49 and 22.54 Pa). The results indicated that the stability index (As) was well related with soil detachment rate, particularly for results obtained with high flow shear stress (22.54 Pa), and the stability index (As) has a good linear relationship with concentrated flow erodibility factors (K_c). There was a positive linear relationship between saturated soil strength (σ_s) and critical flow shear stress (τ_c) for different soils. A significant negative exponential relationship between erodibility factors (K_c) and root density (R_d) was detected. This study yielded two prediction equations that allowed comparison of their efficiency in assessing soil detachment rate in concentrated flow. The equation including the root density (R_d) may have a better correlation coefficient (R² = 0.95). It was concluded that the formula based on the stability index (As), saturated soil strength (σ_s) and root density (R_d) has the potential to improve methodology for assessing soil detachment rate in concentrated flow for the subtropical Chinese Ultisols. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

MODELING EPHEMERAL GULLY EROSION FOR CONSERVATION PLANNING

1INTRODUCTIONEphemeral gully erosion,which is caused by concentrated flow within cultivated farm fields,is distinct from rill erosion.Ephemeral gully erosion is also distinct from gully erosion in permanent,deep,incised channels,formed by headcuts moving upstream.Ephemeral gully erosion is often overlooked.It is not estimated with rill-interrill erosion prediction technology such as the Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation(Renard et al.,1997),and it is often not measured in field survey…     

The effect of conservation tillage on runoff erosivity and soil erodibility during concentrated flow

Crop residues in conservation tillage systems are known to cause both a reduction in the erosive runoff power and an increase in the topsoil erosion resistance. In this study, the relative importance of both mechanisms in reducing soil loss by concentrated flow erosion is examined. Therefore, a method to calculate the effective flow shear stress responsible for soil detachment in the presence of a residue cover is applied. The determination of effective flow shear stress is based on the recalculation of the hydraulic radius for residue treatments. The method was tested in a laboratory flume by comparing soil detachment rates of identical pairs of soil samples that only differ in the presence or absence of crop residues. This shear stress partitioning approach and a soil detachment correction were then applied to a dataset of soil detachment measurements on undisturbed topsoil samples from a no‐till field plot on a loess‐derived soil, sampled during one growing season. Results indicate that only a small fraction (10% on average) of the difference in soil detachment rate between conventional and conservation tillage can be attributed to the dissipation of shear forces on the residues. The remaining decrease in soil detachment during concentrated runoff after a two‐year application of conservation tillage can be explained by the increased dry bulk density and root and crop residue content in the topsoil that reduces soil erodibility. After correcting for the presence of residues, the temporal variability in soil detachment rates (D_r) during concentrated flow for a given flow shear stress (τ) for both treatments can be predicted fairly well (R² = 0·87) from dry soil bulk density (DBD, representing consolidation effects), soil moisture content (SMC, representing antecedent rainfall conditions), the dry mass of organic material (OM, representing root growth and residue decomposition) and saturated soil shear strength σ_{s, sat} using an equation of the form: This study is the first to show that the effect of conservation tillage on soil detachment rates is a result of soil property modifications affecting soil erodibility, rather than a result of the surface residue decreasing flow erosivity. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Rainfall‐induced consolidation and sealing effects on soil erodibility during concentrated runoff for loess‐derived topsoils

Flume experiments simulating concentrated runoff were carried out on remolded silt loam soil samples (0·36 × 0·09 × 0·09 m³) to measure the effect of rainfall‐induced soil consolidation and soil surface sealing on soil erosion by concentrated flow for loess‐derived soils and to establish a relationship between soil erodibility and soil bulk density. Soil consolidation and sealing were simulated by successive simulated rainfall events (0–600 mm of cumulative rainfall) alternated by periods of drying. Soil detachment measurements were repeated for four different soil moisture contents (0·04, 0·14, 0·20 and 0·31 g g^?1). Whereas no effect of soil consolidation and sealing is observed for critical flow shear stress (τ_cr), soil erodibility (Kc) decreases exponentially with increasing cumulative rainfall depth. The erosion‐reducing effect of soil consolidation and sealing decreases with a decreasing soil moisture content prior to erosion due to slaking effects occurring during rapid wetting of the dry topsoil. After about 100 mm of rainfall, Kc attains its minimum value for all moisture conditions, corresponding to a reduction of about 70% compared with the initial Kc value for the moist soil samples and only a 10% reduction for the driest soil samples. The relationship estimating relative Kc values from soil moisture content and cumulative rainfall depth predicts Kc values measured on a gradually consolidating cropland field in the Belgian Loess Belt reasonably well (MEF = 0·54). Kc is also shown to decrease linearly with increasing soil bulk density for all moisture treatments, suggesting that the compaction of thalwegs where concentrated flow erosion often occurs might be an alternative soil erosion control measure in addition to grassed waterways and double drilling. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Impacts of different vegetation restoration options on gully head soil resistance and soil erosion in loess tablelands

Vegetation restoration is identified as an effective approach to control soil erosion and affects soil detachment and resistance to concentrated flow on the Loess Plateau. However, the effects of vegetation restoration at gully heads in loess-tableland remains unclear. This study was performed to investigate the effects of nine vegetation restoration types at gully heads on soil detachment rate (Dr) and soil resistance to concentrated flow (i.e. soil erodibility, K_r and critical shear stress, τ_c). Undisturbed soil samples were collected from nine vegetation-restored lands and one slope cropland (as the control) and were subjected to a hydraulic flume to obtain Dr values of gully heads under six inflow discharges (0.5–3.5 L s^-1). The results showed that the Dr values of nine revegetated gully heads were 77.11% to 95.81% less than that of slope cropland, and the grassland dominated by Cleistogenes caespitosa and the shrubland dominated by Hippophae rhamnoides had a relatively greater decrease in Dr than those of other seven restoration types. The Dr value of nine revegetated gully heads could be better simulated by stream power than by flow velocity and shear stress and was also significantly affected by soil disintegration rate (positively), soil bulk density, saturated hydraulic conductivity, organic matter content, and water-stable aggregate stability (negatively). Additionally, roots with diameters of 0 to 0.5 mm showed a greater effect on Dr than those with larger diameters. Compared to cropland, the nine restored types reduced K_r by 76.26% to 94.26% and improved τ_c by 1.51 to 4.68 times. The decrease in K_r and the increase in τ_c were significantly affected by organic matter content, water-stable aggregate, mean weight diameter of aggregate and root mass density. The combination of grass species (Cleistogenes caespitosa) and shrub (Hippophae rhamnoides) could be considered the best vegetation restoration types for improving soil resistance of gully heads to concentrated flow. © 2019 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Concentrated flow erosion as a main source of sediments in Galicia,Spain

Knowledge of soil loss rates by water erosion under given climate, soil, topography, and management conditions is important for establishing soil conservation schemes. In Galicia, a region with Atlantic climatic conditions in Spain, field observations over the last decade indicate that interrill, rill and ephemeral gully erosion may be an important sediment source. The aim of this work was to assess concentrated erosion rates, describe types of rills and ephemeral gullies and determine their origin, evolution and importance as sediment sources. Soil surface state and concentrated flow erosion were surveyed on medium textured soils, developed over basic schists of the Ordenes Complex series (Coruña province, Spain) from 1997 to 2006. Soil surface state was characterized by crust development, tillage features and roughness degree. Soil erosion rate was directly measured in the field. Concentrated flow erosion took place mainly on seedbeds and recently tilled surfaces in late spring and by autumn or early winter. During the study period, erosion rates were highly variable and the following situations could be distinguished: (a) no incision or limited rill incision, i.e. below 2 Mg ha^?1 year^?1; (b) generalized rill and ephemeral gully incision in the class of mean values between 2·5 and 6·25 Mg ha^?1 year^?1, this was the most common erosion pattern; and (c) heavy erosion as observed during an extremely wet winter period, between October 2000 and February 2001, with erosion figures that may be about ten orders of magnitude higher, up to 55–60 Mg ha^?1 year^?1. Therefore, low values of soil losses are dominant, but also large values of rill and ephemeral gully erosion occurred during the study period. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Rill erosion along the thalweg of a hillslope hollow: A case study from the cotswold hills,Central England

Rill erosion is an important erosional form on agricultural soils in England, causing large losses of soil, particularly on cultivated slopes. This paper describes a rill system that developed in a small agricultural catchment in north Oxfordshire during the winter of 1992–93. The rill system comprised two components: a system of ‘feeder rills’ along the valley-side slopes, which were the result of flow concentration and erosion along wheelings, and a thalweg rill, which formed along a dry valley bottom as a result of surface runoff concentration from the feeder rills. Total volumetric soil loss from the rill system was 32·28 m³, equivalent to 3·01 m³, ha^?1 for the rill catchment area, or 3·91 t ha^?1. Mean discharge for the thalweg rill and feeder rills, calculated during a storm event, was 31·101s^?1 and 1·171s^?1, respectively. All flows were fully turbulent and supercritical. We emphasize the need for a spatially distributed approach to the study of runoff and erosion at the catchment scale.     

The impact of flow discharge on the hydraulic characteristics of headcut erosion processes in the gully region of the Loess Plateau

Headcut erosion is associated with major hydraulic changes induced by the gully head of concentrated flow. However, the variation in the hydraulic characteristics of the headcut erosion process is still not clear in the gully region of the Loess Plateau. A series of rainfall combined scouring experiments (flow discharges ranging from 3.6 to 7.2 m³ hr⁻¹, with 0.8 mm min⁻¹ rainfall intensity) were conducted on experimental plots to clarify the variation in the hydraulic parameters induced by gully head and erosion processes under different flow discharges. The results showed that concentrated flows in the catchment area and gully bed were turbulent (Reynolds number ranging from 1,876 to 6,693) and transformed between supercritical and subcritical (Froude number ranging from 0.96 to 3.73). The hydraulic parameters, such as the flow velocity, Reynolds number, shear stress, stream power, Darcy–Weisbach friction factor, and unit stream power in the catchment area were 0.45–0.59 m s⁻¹, 2086–6693, 1.96–5.33 Pa, 0.89–2.86 W m⁻², 0.08–0.16, and 0.023–0.031 m s⁻¹, respectively. When the concentrated flows dropped from the gully head, the hydraulic parameters in the gully bed decreased by 3.39–26.07%, 1.49–29.99%, 65.19–67.14%, 67.25–74.96%, 28.53–61.31%, and 67.82–77.14%, respectively, which contributed to the flow energy consumption at the gully head. As flow discharge increased, Reynolds number, shear stress, and stream power increased, while flow velocity, Froude number, unit stream power, and Darcy–Weisbach friction factor did not. The flow energy consumption at the gully head was 9.66–10.13, 13.25–13.74, 15.68–16.41, and 19.28–20.25 J s⁻¹, respectively, under different flow discharges and accounted for 60.58–68.50% of the flow energy consumption of the experimental plots. Generally, the sediment discharges increased rapidly at the initial stage, then increased slowly, and finally reached a steady state condition, which showed a significant declining logarithmic trend with experimental duration (P<.01) and increased with increasing flow discharge. Accordingly, the flow energy consumption was significantly correlated with the sediment yield. These findings could improve our understanding of the hydraulic properties and flow energy characteristics of headcut erosion.     

Runoff generation and routing on artificial slopes in a Mediterranean–continental environment: the Teruel coalfield,Spain

The aim of this study was to identify the mechanisms of runoff generation and routing and their controlling factors at the hillslope scale, on artificial slopes derived from surface coal mining reclamation in a Mediterranean–continental area. Rainfall and runoff at interrill and microcatchment scales were recorded for a year on two slopes with different substrata: topsoil cover and overburden cover. Runoff coefficient and runoff routing from interrill areas to microcatchment outlets were higher in the overburden substratum than in topsoil, and greater in the most developed rill network. Rainfall volume is the major parameter responsible for runoff response on overburden, suggesting that this substratum is very impermeable—at least during the main rainfall periods of the year (late spring and autumn) when the soil surface is sealed. In such conditions, most rainfall input is converted into runoff, regardless of its intensity. Results from artificial rainfall experiments, conducted 3 and 7 years after seeding, confirm the low infiltration capacity of overburden when sealed. The hydrological response shows great seasonal variability on the overburden slope in accordance with soil surface changes over the year. Rainfall volume and intensities (I₃₀, I₆₀) explain runoff at the interrill scale on the topsoil slope, where rainfall experiments demonstrated a typical Hortonian infiltration curve. However, no correlation was found at the microcatchment level, probably because of the loss of functionality of the only rill as ecological succession proceeded. The runoff generation mechanism on the topsoil slope is more homogeneous throughout the year. Runoff connectivity, defined as the ratio between runoff rates recorded at the rill network scale and those recorded at the interrill area scale in every rainfall event, was also greater on the rilled overburden slope, and in the most developed rill network. The dense rill networks of the overburden slope guarantee very effective runoff drainage, regardless of rainfall magnitude. Rills drain overland flow from interrill‐sealed areas, reducing the opportunity of reinfiltration in areas not affected by siltation. Runoff generation and routing on topsoil slopes are controlled by grass cover and soil moisture content, whereas on overburden slopes rill network density and soil moisture content are the main controlling factors. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Exploring the role of topography in small channel erosion

Erosion caused by concentrated flows in agricultural areas is responsible for important soil losses, and rapid sediment transfer through the channel network. The main factors controlling concentrated flow erosion rates include the erodibility of soil materials, soil use and management, climate and watershed topography. In this paper, two topographic indices, closely related to mathematical expressions suggested by different authors, are used to characterize the influence of watershed topography on gully erosion. The AS1 index is defined as the product of the watershed area and the partial area‐weighted average slope. The AS2 index is similar to the AS1 but uses the swale slope as the weighting factor. Formally, AS2 is the product of the watershed area and the length‐weighted average swale slope. From studies made using different ephemeral gully erosion databases, it is shown that a high correlation consistently exists between the topographic indices and the volume of eroded soil. The resulting relationships are therefore useful to assess soil losses from gully erosion, to identify the most susceptible watersheds within large areas, and to compare the susceptibility to gully erosion among different catchments. This information is also important in studying the response of natural drainage network systems to different rainfall inputs. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The identification of four stages during micro-rill development

Separation of rill and inter-rill erosion is required in many of the soil erosion models currently being developed. The feasibility of basing the separation on the hydraulic properties of the flow and resultant sediment production is examined in a laboratory simulation of rill initiation and development. Four stages are identified in the process of rill formation; these are sheetflow, flowline development, micro-rills, and micro-rills with headcuts. There are significant differences in terms of flow characteristics between the stages, especially between sheetflow and flowlines, indicating the promise of this method for making a more precise distinction between rill and inter-rill erosion.     

Quantifying the effects of plant litter in the topsoil on the soil detachment process by overland flow in typical grasslands of the Loess Plateau,China

Plant litter can be incorporated into topsoil by a natural process, affecting the soil erosion process. This is a widespread phenomenon in erosion-prone areas. This study was conducted to investigate the effect of litter incorporation on the process of soil detachment on the Loess Plateau, China. Four common plant litters (Bothriochloa ischaemum L. Keng., Artemisia sacrorum Ledeb., Setaria viridis L. Beauv., and Artemisia capillaris Thunb.) were collected, then incorporated into the silt loam soil at five rates (0.1, 0.4, 0.7, 1.0, and 1.3 kg m⁻²) on the basis of our field investigation. Twenty litter–soil treatments and one bare soil control were prepared. After 50 days of natural stabilization, 30 soil samples of each treatment were collected. We used a flume test to scour the soil samples under six flow shear stress conditions (5.66, 8.31, 12.21, 15.55, 19.15, and 22.11 Pa). The results showed that the different incorporated litter masses and morphological characteristics, such as litter tissue density (ranging from 0.52 to 0.68 g cm⁻³), length density (2.34 to 91.00 km m⁻³), surface area density (LSAD; 27.9 to 674.2 m² m⁻³), and volume ratio (0.003 to 0.050 m³ m⁻³), caused varied soil detachment capacities (0.043 to 4.580 kg·m⁻²·s⁻¹), rill erodibilities (0.051 to 0.237 s m⁻¹), and critical shear stresses (2.02 to 6.83 Pa). The plant litter incorporated within the soil reduced the soil detachment capacities by 38%–59%, lowered the rill erodibilities by 32%–46%, and increased the critical shear stresses by 98%–193% compared with the bare soil control. The soil containing B. ischaemum (L.) Keng. litter was more resistant to erosion. By comparing different parameters, we found that the contact area between the litter and soil was the main factor affecting the soil detachment process. The soil erosion resistance increased with the increasing contact area between the soil and litter. Furthermore, the litter incorporation effect on rill erodibility can be comprehensively reflected by LSAD (R² = .93; Nash–Sutcliffe efficiency = 0.79), which could be used to adjust the rill erodibility parameter in physical process-based soil erosion models.     

A comparison of the effectiveness of the roots of two grass species in reducing soil erosion on alluvial fans in south-east China

The effects of root systems on soil detachment by overland flow are closely related to vegetation types. The objective of this study was to quantify the effects of two gramineous roots (Paspalum mandiocanum with shallow roots and Pennisetum giganteum with deep roots) on soil detachment capacity, rill erodibility, and critical shear stress on alluvial fans of benggang in south-east China. A 4-m-long and 0.12-m-wide flume was used. Slope steepness ranged from 9% to 27%, and unit flow discharge ranged from 1.39 × 10⁻³ to 4.19 × 10⁻³ m² s⁻¹. The mean detachment capacities of P. mandiocanum and P. giganteum lands were 18% and 38% lower than that of bare land, respectively, and the effects of root on reducing soil detachment were mainly reflected in the 0- to 5-cm soil layer. The most important factors in characterizing soil detachment capacity were root length density and soil cohesion, and soil detachment capacity of the two grass lands could be estimated using flow shear stress, soil cohesion, and root length density (NSE = 0.90). With the increase in soil depth, rill erodibility increased, whereas shear stress decreased. The mean rill erodibilities of P. mandiocanum and P. giganteum lands were 81% and 61% as much as that of bare land, respectively. Additionally, rill erodibilities of the two grass lands could be estimated as an exponential function by root length density and soil cohesion (NSE = 0.88). The mean critical shear stress of P. mandiocanum and P. giganteum lands was 1.29 and 1.39 times that of bare land, respectively, and it could be estimated with a linear function by root length density (NSE = 0.76). This study demonstrated that planting of the two grasses P. mandiocanum and P. giganteum could effectively reduce soil detachment and enhance soil resistance to erosion on alluvial fans, with the deep roots of P. giganteum being more effective than the shallow roots of P. mandiocanum. The results are helpful for understanding the influencing mechanism of root systems on soil detachment process.     

Concentrated flow erosion in cultivated catchments: Influence of soil surface state

Concentrated flow erosion is the dominant form of winter erosion in northern France. This study correlates the ephemeral rill and gully volumes measured in 20 cultivated catchments (4–95 ha) for three consecutive winters with the size of the potential runoff-contributing areas. These areas were identified by characterizing soil surface state through crust development stage, importance of surface wheel tracks and roughness grade. A single and significant relationship was found between the size of runoff-contributing areas, estimated by this criterion, and the rill and gully volumes. This identified the proportion of the catchment area occupied by fields with a degraded surface structure as the main factor controlling the variability of erosion in a context of concentrated flow erosion on cultivated land. The extension of degraded areas was shown to be controlled by dynamic interactions between weather, land occupation and soil physical properties. This criterion accounts for the uneven distribution of rainfall in space and time. Morphological factors, such as talweg length and slope, are believed to determine part of the residual variability.     

Modelling the process of soil detachment by rill flow on steep loessial hillslopes

Soil detachment by rill flow is a key process of rill erosion, modelling this process can help in understanding rill erosion mechanisms. However, many soil detachment models are established on conceptual assumptions rather than experimental data. The objectives of this study were to establish a model of soil detachment by rill flow based on flume experimental data and to quantitatively verify the model. We simulated the process of soil detachment by rill flow in flume experiments with a soil-feeding hopper using loessial soil on steep slopes. Seven flow discharges, six slopes and five sediment loads were combined. Soil detachment capacity, sediment transport capacity, and soil detachment rate by rill flow under different sediment loads were measured. The process of soil detachment by rill flow can be modelled by a dual power function based on soil detachment capacity and transport capacity deficit as variables. The established model exhibited high credibility (NSE=0.97; R²=0.97). The contributions of soil detachment capacity and transport capacity deficit to soil detachment rate by rill flow reached 60% and 36%, respectively. Soil detachment capacity exerted more influence on soil detachment rate than did transport capacity deficit. The performance of the WEPP rill erosion equation is also favourable (NSE=0.95; R²=0.97). The two power exponents in the model we established strengthen the role of soil detachment capacity in soil detachment rate and weaken that for transport capacity deficit. Soil detachment capacity and transport capacity deficit played important roles in the determination of soil detachment rate by rill flow. The results can be applied to implement the numerical modeling and prediction of rill erosion processes on steep loessial hillslopes. © 2019 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Root properties of vegetation communities and their impact on the erosion resistance of river dikes

Predicted climate change and the associated sea level rise poses an increased threat of flooding due to wave overtopping events at sea and river dikes. To safeguard the land from flooding it is important to keep the soil erosion resistance at the dikes high. As plant roots can be very effective in reducing soil erosion rates by concentrated flow, the main goal of this study is to explore the variability in root system characteristics of five dike vegetation communities along the Scheldt River (Belgium) and to assess their effectiveness in controlling soil erosion rates during concentrated flow. This study is the first one to investigate systematically the erosion‐reducing potential of the root properties of representative dike vegetation communities in a temperate humid climate. Results show that the presence of Urtica dioica resulted in large differences in root length density (RLD) among dike vegetation communities. Observed RLD values in the topsoil ranged from 129 to 235 km m^‐3 for dike vegetation communities without U. dioica, while smaller values ranging from 22 to 58 km m^?3 were found for vegetation communities with U. dioica. The erosion‐reducing effect of the dike vegetation communities was estimated based on a global Hill curve model, linking the RLD to the soil detachment ratio (SDR; i.e. the ratio of the soil detachment rate for root‐permeated topsoils to the soil detachment rate for root‐free topsoils). Concentrated flow erosion rates are likely to be reduced to 13–16% of the erosion rates for root‐free topsoils if U. dioica is absent compared to 22–30% for vegetation communities with U. dioica. Hence, to maintain a high resistance of the soil against concentrated flow erosion it is important to avoid the overgrowth of grassland by U. dioica through an effective vegetation management. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

RILL INITIATION AND EROSION ON HILLSLOPES IN THE HILLY LOESS REGION,WESTERN SHANXI PROVINCE

I. INTRODUCTIONSumming up recent research achievements, Huang (1993) pointed out that the capaciucs ordetachment and transport by rill now were much greater than tboso by rain drop impact and sheet now. soil erosion by water on upper slope area is frcquenhy discussed interms of interrill and rill erosional sub--processes. Compared with rill erosion, interrlll erosion contributes a very small proportion to the sediment transported downwards (Foster,1982). Field experiments conducted by Ca…