球形粒子毫米波k-Z关系研究

星载毫米波雷达衰减严重,而不同云降水类型中所包含的云雨粒子微物理特性差异较大,其所造成的衰减影响差异也很明显。基于WRF模式模拟的不同云降水场景,利用星载毫米波雷达模拟器仿真得到衰减后的回波,并对云中粒子的衰减特性进行敏感性分析,说明引起衰减不确定性的重要影响因素。结果表明,仿真得到的衰减后回波与云廓线雷达（CPR）实测回波一致性较好,回波结构和强度近似,平均反射率因子廓线差异均在20%以内,衰减估计结果可靠有效。通过对衰减系数（K）进行敏感性分析发现,云雨粒子均对粒子谱分布中的含水量（W）最为敏感,中值体积直径（D₀）的影响也较大,其变化可能引起雨滴衰减系数的平均相对误差达25%左右;雪和霰受密度参数（a、b）的影响大于斜率参数（Λ）,a引起的不确定性在25%以内。在相同滴谱参数的情况下,冰态和液态造成衰减系数的差异达90%左右。考虑到衰减对相态的高度敏感性,将基于相态分类的K-W关系应用于CPR实测个例衰减订正中,订正后的回波与波段校正后的星载双频测雨雷达（DPR）Ka波段探测回波强度接近,衰减订正的不确定性主要来自于液水含量反演结果与实际情况的差异。     

球形粒子毫米波k-Z关系研究

由于毫米波更接近云粒子尺度,毫米波雷达越来越多地被用来探测云粒子及尺度较小的降水粒子.但是,在使用毫米波雷达探测时,要考虑云和降水粒子散射和吸收以及大气气体吸收所造成的衰减.结合毫米波测云雷达数据处理的实际需要,研究云中衰减系数k与雷达反射率因子Z的关系.假设粒子为小球形,云、雨滴谱分别服从K-M分布和Γ分布,通过模拟...     

Numerical simulation of the scattering indicatrix,linear polarization rate,and depolarization factor in the developing convective cloud for millimeter and centimeter wavelengths

Carried out is the numerical modeling of the scattering indicatrix, linear polarization rate, and depolarization factor in the developing convective cloud based on the convection jet model using the Mi functions for millimeter and centimeter wavelength ranges. The analysis of the results demonstrated that the values of these parameters depend strongly on the scattering angle for any wavelength and at any height of the convective cloud. It is shown that these characteristics vary significantly if there is increase in the droplet size in the spectrum and decrease in the wavelength. Revealed is the inverse dependence between the scattering indicatrix values and the polarization (depolarization). At such scattering angles where the scattering indicatrix is maximal, polarization and depolarization are minimal.     

Numerical simulation of scattered light polarization in a developing convective cloud for millimeter wavelengths

The optical characteristics of scattered light polarization in a developing convective cloud for millimeter wavelengths are numerically studied using the convection jet model and Stokes parameters. The analysis revealed that the value of all polarization forms does not depend on the cloud droplet spectrum and wavelength in the lower layers of a convective cloud. As the cloud droplet size increases and the wavelength decreases, the polarizations of all forms vary greatly and may have several maxima. It is also demonstrated that the degree of partial polarization may make no sense in the Rayleigh region at the certain values of polarization parameters.     

Some dynamical properties of idealized thermally-forced meridional circulations in the tropics

Summary Through the use of a zonal balance model we investigate the properties of the tropical meridional circulation to a range of specified diabatic forcing fields for climatologically observed zonal winds. As in earlier studies, the solutions show that latent heat release away from the equator forces an asymmetric meridional circulation in response the anisotropy in the inertial stability parameter with respect to the meridional location of the forcing. The presence of strong zonal flows appears to play a relatively minor role in determining the magnitude and asymmetry of the meridional circulation, whereas the structure of the diabatic heating, particularly the meridional breadth, proves to be of much greater importance.A dynamic efficiency factor, which provides an analytic measure of the efficacy of diabatic heating at generating zonal kinetic energy, generally exhibits a meridionally symmetric structure except during Northern Hemisphere summer. This asymmetry gives rise to a pronounced sensitivity of zonal kinetic energy generation to the meridional location of ITCZ convection. Further examination of the flow pattern suggests that for zonal flows representative of those over the Indian Ocean during the Northern Hemisphere summer months, meridional displacements of the heating of less than 20° latitude can result in as much as an order of magnitude difference in the rate of kinetic energy generation. Solution of the balance system also implies the existence of a feedback mechanism, between zonally-organized convection and the energetics properties of the large-scale flow, that is highly sensitive to the meridional location of the convection.With 11 FiguresThe National Center for Atmospheric Research is sponsored by the National Science Foundation.     

气象学中使用统计检验的几个重要注记

在气候诊断研究和短期气候预测中广泛使用统计方法,例如相关分析和合成分析.本文对国内外文献中对统计检验显著性水平的各种描述进行了评论,指出了错误.指出了描述统计检验的结果时应该注意的问题.认为,对相关系数和合成分析等统计检验的描述,不应该称为"95%的信度","95%的显著性水平",而应该称为"5%的信度(显著性水平)",或者"95%的置信水平".还指出,统计检验或者显著性检验不应该被改称为信度检验,并分析了错误与产生混乱的原因.     

Some aspects of the correlation between lightning and rain activities in thunderstorms

The lightning activity of convective systems is a sometimes fruitful indicator of their precipitation production. The present study compares rain volume with different types of lightning activity in several convective systems. The study uses data obtained in the Paris area where two lightning detection systems coexist. The Météorage network provides the location and the polarity of cloud-to-ground flashes, while the SAFIR system detects the total flash activity: cloud-to-ground, intra-cloud flashes and VHF individual sources within a given time window. The overall spatial correlation between rain and lightning appears to be very consistent for all lightning types. A pixel-to-pixel study shows that positive CG flashes are associated with higher rainwater volume than negative flashes. Introducing a weight coefficient for positive CG flashes considerably improves the correlation between rain amount and lightning production. Taking into account the specific contribution of each type of lightning flash, the amount of rain can be estimated from the total electrical activity of each system. Comparison with the amount derived from radar measurement shows reasonable agreement. Finally, the parallel time evolutions of rain and lightning rates display quite similar characteristics.     

Sea-salt optical properties and GCM forcing at solar wavelengths

The single-scattering optical properties of sea-salt solution particles are parameterised as functions of relative humidity for various dry size distributions at solar wavelengths. The accuracy of the parameterisation is typically within 10% as compared to exact Mie calculations. In addition to the optical properties, the growth of the droplet mass ratio and the effective radius of the size distribution are also parameterised in terms of the relative humidity. Two-band models are presented: a four-band model for use in GCMs for climate studies and a 23-band model for use in higher spectral resolution models. The parameterisation is implemented in the Canadian General Circulation Model GCMIII, and an estimate of the first-order globally and yearly averaged solar direct radiative forcing due to sea-salt is estimated to be −0.15 W/m² (cooling). The northern hemisphere forcing is estimated to be −0.11 W/m² and the southern hemisphere is −0.19 W/m². The monthly trends in the forcing for the two hemispheres are presented and discussed. The sensitivity of the forcing to the treatment of the growth of aerosols in the hysteresis region, where aerosol particles are either dry or supersaturated, is investigated along with other sensitivities.     

贵阳市秋绵雨的气候统计特征及其环流成因

分析贵阳市秋绵雨的气候统计特征，给出了贵阳市秋绵雨分区图及区域性秋绵雨过程的统计特征，并指出其存在明显的年际变化和年代际变化的特点。通过对典型重秋绵雨年和无秋绵雨年环流成因分析，概括出造成秋绵雨的500hPa环流模型特征，提出了秋绵雨的防御对策建议。     

河池市城区酸雨的统计特征分析及对策探讨

利用河池市气象局地面观测站酸雨监测资料,统计分析河池市酸雨污染状况和变化规律及与气象条件的关系。并对酸雨影响因素进行分析,提出相应的对策。     

酸雨观测应注意的一些"细节"

酸雨观测是一项要求严格,操作仔细,技术性很强的工作。要保证酸雨观测记录资料准确、可靠,必须要熟悉酸雨业务规测和技术规定,在“细节”上下功夫。     

Agricultural droughts in the tropics

Summary Irregular droughts are the main reason for serious yield reductions in tropical agriculture, with sometimes very serious consequences. These agricultural droughts are defined and delimited in relation to normal rainfall conditions, to which traditional agricultural production systems are fully adapted. Examples from East Africa and Malaysia, tropical areas which differ climatically and in the availability of climatic data, illustrate that it is necessary to use different statistical methods to estimate the probability of agricultural droughts.Short droughts, often concealed by monthly rainfall figures, can have serious effects, particularly on annual crops with their short root systems. A simple water balance model, based on daily rainfall data, is used to estimate the probability of these dry periods. The same model can be used to predict periods of surplus rainfall, when soils are saturated. These periods can cause severe reduction in agricultural yields.

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Zusammenfassung Unregelmäßig auftretende Trockenperioden sind die Hauptursache von Produktionsverlusten in der tropischen Landwirtschaft, die katastrophale Folgen haben können. Diese landwirtschaftlichen Trockenperioden werden in bezug auf die normalen Niederschlagsverhältnisse definiert und begrenzt, an die die traditionellen tropischen Landwirtschaftssysteme vollständig angepaßt sind. Beispiele aus Ostafrika und Malaysien zeigen, wie die statistischen Methoden zur Ermittlung der Wahrscheinlichkeit landwirtschaftlicher Trockenperioden an die Klimaverhältnisse sowie an die Verfügbarkeit von Klimadaten angepaßt werden müssen.Monatliche Niederschlagsziffern verbergen oft kurze Trockenperioden, die erhebliche Schäden verursachen können, besonders an einjährigen Pflanzen mit ihren kurzen Wurzelsystemen. Ein einfaches Wasserbilanzmodell, basierend auf Tagesziffern der Niederschläge, zeigt die Wahrscheinlichkeit solcher kurzen Trockenperioden an. Dasselbe Modell kann auch Perioden mit saturierten Böden vorhersagen. Diese können schädliche Folgen für die Ernteerträge haben.

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With 13 Figures     

泰山酸雨特征及影响因素分析

利用2006—2015年泰山气象站的降水pH、电导率、降水量和风向风速资料,统计分析了泰山酸雨特征和变化趋势,探讨了降水量和风向风速对酸雨的影响。结果表明,泰山降水年均pH变化范围为4.31～4.99,酸雨发生频率达到69.3%;pH随降水量的增加而趋于5.60（中性）;5月至次年1月的月均pH与月平均过程降水量的变化趋势一致;月均电导率与月平均过程降水量的变化趋势相反。泰山降水期间盛行西南风,在南风和东北风条件下,酸雨出现频率最高且酸性最强,这主要是风速风向因素和人为排放源分布共同导致的。近10 a泰山降水酸性程度有所减弱,酸雨频率明显下降,表明近年来酸雨污染情况有所改善,有利于保护泰山生态环境。     

Particulate carbon content in rain at various temperate and tropical locations

Particulate organic and black carbon concentrations in rain were determined in various source or remote regions, in order to gain information on the incorporation of atmospheric carbonaceous particles in hydrometeors. The analyses of rainwaters indicate that all the samples contained particles derived from combustion. Data obtained on a sample basis, show an important areal and temporal variability of the composition of rain carbonaceous particles, a variability which is reported to that of the black carbon to total carbon ratio, Cb/Ct, ranging from 10 to 72%. In addition to the fluctuations of the aerosol atmospheric burden, these variations may be related to alterations of the organic fraction of the particles or their involvement in in-cloud nucleation processes during atmospheric transport. Also, a comparison of the mean relative abundance of black carbon in aerosols and in rainwaters, gives evidence of a partial disappearance of the organic particles, a phenomenon which could be due to their dissolution when incorporated in the hydrometeors. Precipitation scavenging ratio values of black carbon particles, which range from 100 to 370, are similar to those found for sulphate anthropogenic aerosols. Due to their hygroscopic properties and mean size, black carbon aerosols could possibly trace the physico-chemical processes involved in the incorporation of fine combustion particles into hydrometeors. It is also suggested that smoke particles may act as cloud condensation nuclei (CCN). Consequently, emissions of particulates derived from combustion in some tropical or industrial regions could result locally in alteration of cloud albedo and precipitation regimes.     

利用2004年北京雨滴谱资料分析降水强度和雷达反射率因子的关系

在北京2004年的45次降水过程中,基于DISDROMETER仪器测量的雨滴谱资料计算每次降水的强度R和雷达反射率因子Z.结果表明,不同降水过程中,雷达反射率因子Z与降水强度R的幂指数关系中的指数b和系数a是不同的,这与不同降水过程的雨滴谱分布不同密切相关.综合分析这45次降水过程中的指数b和系数a,得到指数b和系数a呈正相关.接着,分别就指数b和系数a与平均降水强度、平均雷达反射率因子、平均特征直径和雨滴平均数密度之间关系做了详细的讨论.另外,基于这一年的降水雨滴谱资料,讨论了Z-R幂指数关系中指数b和系数a的月变化特征.分析结果表明,从4月到12月系数a和指数b呈现逐月递减的年变化特征.最后,文章就12个个例的特征直径Dm的特征进行了分析.结果显示,当特征直径Dm随时间保持不变时,降水强度R和雷达反射率因子Z之间存在线性相关的关系,即当特征直径Dm为常数时,Z-R关系的指数b为1.     

Depolarization ratio profiling at several wavelengths in pure Saharan dust during SAMUM 2006

Vertical profiles of the linear particle depolarization ratio of pure dust clouds were measured during the Saharan Mineral Dust Experiment (SAMUM) at Ouarzazate, Morocco (30.9°N, –6.9°E), close to source regions in May–June 2006, with four lidar systems at four wavelengths (355, 532, 710 and 1064 nm). The intercomparison of the lidar systems is accompanied by a discussion of the different calibration methods, including a new, advanced method, and a detailed error analysis. Over the whole SAMUM periode pure dust layers show a mean linear particle depolarization ratio at 532 nm of 0.31, in the range between 0.27 and 0.35, with a mean Ångström exponent (AE, 440–870 nm) of 0.18 (range 0.04–0.34) and still high mean linear particle depolarization ratio between 0.21 and 0.25 during periods with aerosol optical thickness less than 0.1, with a mean AE of 0.76 (range 0.65–1.00), which represents a negative correlation of the linear particle depolarization ratio with the AE. A slight decrease of the linear particle depolarization ratio with wavelength was found between 532 and 1064 nm from 0.31 ± 0.03 to 0.27 ± 0.04.     

Using scintillation at two wavelengths to measure path-averaged heat fluxes in free convection

Local free convection scaling is one of the obvious triumphs of boundary-layer similarity theory. In free convection, there is no dynamic velocity scale; the sensible and latent heat fluxes, therefore, scale directly with the temperature and humidity structure parameters C _t ² and C _q ². By using scintillation to measure the refractive index structure parameter C _n ² at two electromagnetic (EM) wavelengths, we can obtain C _t ² and C _q ² and, thus, in effect, measure path-averaged values of the sensible and latent heat fluxes. Here I describe this so-called two-wavelength method for free convection, derive quantitative guidelines for optimizing the method, and evaluate its potential accuracy. I show that the two-wavelength method works best when one EM wavelength is in the visible or infrared region and the other is in the millimeter or radio region. When the Bowen ratio is between -5 and -0.1 or between 0.1 and 5, the expected accuracy of the measured fluxes is ±10–20% — typical of what is possible with eddy-correlation measurements. With the two-wavelength method, however, the fluxes represent spatial averages.     

Global change and the intensification of agriculture in the tropics

Bridging understanding of local environmental change with regional and global patterns of land-use and land-cover change (LUCC) remains a key goal and challenge for our understanding of global environmental change. This meta-analysis attempts to bridge local and regional scales of LUCC by demonstrating the ways in which previously published case studies can be compared and used for a broader regional synthesis in the tropics. In addition to providing results from a meta-analysis, this paper suggests ways to make future case studies more widely comparable.