Testing commonly used X‐ray fluorescence core scanning‐based proxies for organic‐rich lake sediments and peat

X‐ray fluorescence (XRF) core scanning has become widely available for geological studies during the last decade. The data obtained from XRF core scanning, however, may be strongly influenced by the amount of organic matter, water content, density and porosity of the sediment matrix. In this study we discuss the usefulness of XRF core scanning to distinguish different kinds of organic‐rich sediments and peat based on examples from tropical Lakes Kumphawapi and Nong Leng Sai in Thailand. We examined how sedimentary factors influence XRF core scanning analyses by comparing elemental and scattering ratios to lithological changes and quantitative LOI, TOC, biogenic silica (BSi) and grain‐size values. Our comparison suggests that the (inc/coh) scattering ratio is of limited use as an indicator for variations in LOI and TOC in peaty gyttja or peat. In Lake Kumphawapi's sediments, Si/Ti ratios reflect clastic input associated with grain‐size variations rather than BSi contents. The Ti‐normalized ratios of Si, Zr, Sr, K and Rb are linked to mineral input and associated grain‐size variations. We conclude that XRF core scanning of organic‐rich tropical lake sediments and peat is useful to infer palaeoenvironmental conditions. However, XRF core scanning data does not stand‐alone and needs to be underpinned by additional proxies.     

Geochemical records of the sediments and their significance in Dongping Lake Area,the lower reach of Yellow River,North China

Dongping Lake area, located in the lower reaches of Yellow River, is an ideal place to study the changes of modern river and lake sedimentary environment. The sediment samples of Dawen River, Yellow River, and Dongping Lake were collected, and the major elements, trace elements and organic matter geochemical composition of the samples were analyzed. Cluster analysis, characteristic element ratio method and graphic method were used to explore the geochemical characteristics of sediments and their environmental implication. The results show that the contents of SiO_2, Na_2O, TiO_2 and Zr in sediments of Dawen River and Yellow River are relatively high, and the contents of iron and manganese oxides, organic matter, CaO, P_2O_5 and Sr in lake sediments are relatively high. That reveals the differences of sedimentary environments between the rivers and the lake. The contents of Sr and Zr in Dawen River are affected by the rapid migration of clastic materials in the upstream carbonate source area during the flood season; the δCe,ΣREE and REE's ratios in the sediments of the Yellow River reflect the influence of the Loess source; and the distribution of elements changes along the flow direction during the flood season. The characteristics of p H, element composition and LREE HREE fractionation of the lake sediments indicate that the sediment source is complex, and the lake environment is affected by the flood season. The study shows that the geochemical content and its variation characteristics of sediments effectively reveal the sedimentary environment, material composition and characteristics of flood season of rivers and the lake in the study area.     

Suspended sediment transport,sedimentation, and resuspension in Lake Houston,Texas: Implications for water quality

Lake Houston is a man-made reservoir located northeast of Houston, Texas. The purpose of this investigation was to document suspended sediment transport, sedimentation, and resuspension in the lake with a view towards estimating the influence of sedimentation on water quality. Sediment traps were placed in strategic locations in the lake to collect suspended sediments. Samples were analyzed for bulk density, grain size, organic carbon, and a number of trace elements. These data were analyzed along with meteorological data to examine those factors which regulate suspended sediment input and dispersal, and the role of suspended sediments in controlling water quality within the lake. Sediment input to the lake depends primarily on the intensity of rainfall in the watershed. Sediment movement within the lake is strongly influenced by wave activity, which resuspends sediments from shallow areas, and by wind-driven circulation. The increased residence time of suspended sediments due to resuspension allows greater decomposition of organic matter and the release of several trace elements from sediments to the water column. Virtually all samples from sediment traps suspended between 1 and 5 m above the lake bottom contain medium to coarse silt, and even some very fine sand-sized material. This implies that circulation in Lake Houston is periodically intense enough to transport this size material in suspension. During winter, northerly winds with sustained velocities of greater than 5 m/sec provide the most suitable condition for rapid (<1 d) transport of suspended sediment down the length of the lake. Fluctuations in current velocities and the subsequent suspension/deposition of particles may explain variations in the abundance of coliform bacteria in Lake Houston.     

Late Holocene high precipitation events recorded in lake sediments and catchment geomorphology,Lake Vuoksjávrátje,NW Sweden

In this paper, we show the potential of combining multi‐proxy analysis of lake sediments with catchment geomorphology to better understand palaeoenvironmental changes. Previous studies have suggested that alpine lakes in N Sweden may be highly sensitive to variations in catchment erosion and precipitation, and that this sensitivity may influence ecologically based reconstructions of past temperature changes. We analysed lake sediments covering the last 5100 years from the alpine Lake Vuoksjávrátje in NW Sweden in order to identify different erosional regimes in the lake catchment, sediment sources and lake sedimentary processes, which ultimately affect the palaeoecological record. The measured proxies include elemental geochemistry from XRF core scanning, grain size, sediment accumulation rates, fraction of terrestrial organic carbon and geomorphological mapping, supported by previously published chironomid and total organic carbon data. From the integrated results we identified time intervals when increased intensity of precipitation altered sedimentation and lake catchment erosional processes. The most prominent event occurred c. 2900 cal. a BP and is interpreted to be the result of excessive precipitation, possibly related to the climatic shift towards cooler and wetter conditions referred to as the 2.8 ka event.     

Vegetation changes and human impact inferred from an oxbow lake in southwestern Amazonia,Brazil since the 19th century

Pollen and X-ray fluorescence spectrometry (XRF) analyses from a 272 cm-long sediment core of Lago Amapá, an oxbow lake in western Amazonia, reveal the first palaeoecological investigation of late Holocene sediments in Acre state, Brazil. Radiocarbon dating of older sediments failed due to re-deposition of organic material but a historical map suggests that lacustrine deposition started at 1900 AD. We detected two periods of changes in sediment and vegetation, dominated by pioneer taxa especially Cecropia. The first period around 1900 AD is documenting an initial oxbow lake, with regular fluvial input (high Ti) and low accumulation of organic matter (low inc/coh ratio). During that period Andean pollen taxa originating from Peruvian Andean headwaters were deposited. A fully lacustrine phase started about 1950 AD and is characterized by prolonged periods of stagnant water (low Fe/Mn ratio). The increase of pioneer taxa, sedimentation rates and a reduction of most of the XRF element counts point to a period during which Lago Amapá was a more isolated lake which was flooded only during exceptional severe flood events and is catching mainly anthropogenic disturbances. The extensive human influence during this period was assumed by 1) the high occurrence of pioneer taxa and the absence of charcoal which could indicate changes in vegetation possibly as a result of logging, 2) the Ca and Ti/K ratio which reflect changes to a local sediment source, and 3) comparison of Landsat images from the last 30 years which shows broad changes in vegetation cover and land transformation in the peripheral areas of the oxbow lake.     

抚仙湖全新世自生碳酸盐及其区域气候和湖泊水位指示意义

抚仙湖是我国面积、蓄水量最大的高原湖泊之一。通过对抚仙湖FXH-B2钻孔岩芯296 cm沉积物的矿物组成和碳酸盐含量分析,结合岩芯XRF扫描数据和AMS^14C年代的测定,探讨了抚仙湖湖泊沉积物中碳酸盐含量与方解石矿物及沉积物Ca元素相对含量之间的关系及其环境指示意义,在对比和参考水下地形测量、地球物理勘探、水质和地球化学监测和不同部位钻孔岩芯的分析结果的基础上,重建了抚仙湖全新世以来气候和湖泊水位的变化。结果指示,抚仙湖碳酸盐含量与方解石的XRD信号强度、沉积物Ca元素的XRF扫描数据之间存在很高的相关性,沉积物中碳酸盐类物质主要为方解石(其他碳酸盐类矿物相对含量极微甚至可以忽略不计),沉积物中Ca元素主要来自碳酸盐,因此其含量由碳酸盐、即方解石矿物含量决定。沉积物中碳酸盐含量的变化可以用沉积物中Ca元素XRF扫描结果进行表示。由于抚仙湖处于亚热带季风气候区,以10月至次年4月降水量极少而蒸发强烈为特点的干季和以5月至9月降水为主的湿季所形成的干湿变化控制了湖泊演化的主要过程,区域气候变化是湖泊演化和水位变化的主要动力。结合湖泊沉积碳酸盐稳定同位素δ^18O和δ^13C、有机质含量及其同位素δ^13C、抚仙湖北部边缘水下侵蚀地形测量、地球物理勘探和沉积地层年代的确定和讨论,明确了抚仙湖沉积碳酸盐含量指示湖泊水位的变化,并重建了抚仙湖过去约12 ka以来水位变化的历史。结果显示,在约12 cal.ka B.P.至2.2 cal.ka B.P.期间的湖泊水位变化主要经历了波动式降低的过程,其中4.37~2.2 cal.ka B.P.期间高CaCO3含量、偏正的碳酸盐δ^18O、δ^13C值指示抚仙湖一度出现低于现代湖面约30 m左右的低水位,可能记录了抚仙湖流域极端的干旱时期,在2.2~2.0 cal.ka B.P.期间抚仙湖水位经历了快速升高的变化事件,期间湖水位快速上升达到现代湖水水位,揭示了印度季风控制区区域降水的特殊性和气候变化的突发性。     

Geochemistry of Pyramid Lake sediments: influence of anthropogenic activities and climatic variations within the basin

In 1998, a 59-cm sediment box core (PLB98-2) was taken from the deepest part of Pyramid Lake (water depth =106 m), Nevada. Age control for PLB98-2 was provided using a variety of approaches. Dried sediment samples were leached with 10% ultra-pure nitric acid and analyzed for their elemental concentrations using standard ICP techniques. The variations in elemental concentrations can be divided into two periods: one prior to European settlement and one influenced by anthropogenic activities. The concentrations of K, Al, Na, Zn, and Mn all began to increase after pre-European manipulation of the watershed in ~1860, which indicates the increasing soil erosion in the watershed was due to deforestation and development. The highest concentrations of these elements and lithogenic elements such as P, Mg, Fe, Cu, Ba, and Si occurred during the flood event of the 1990s. The Pb enrichment times are similar to what has been observed in estuaries draining the western Sierra Nevada, but the Pb enrichments in Pyramid Lake are much less. The Ca, TOC, TIC, Sr, and Ba concentrations show a strong association that is closely related to drought-wet variations of climate and the construction of Derby Dam for water diversions in the early 1900s. Se concentrations vary with the '¹⁸O of the carbonate in the sediments. Although the '¹⁸O "leads" the other species and Truckee River discharge by a few years, it is an excellent indicator of the hydrological change of Pyramid Lake, which is related to climate changes and human activities. From ~1920, Mn and Mo vary inversely in the sediments. In general, the Mo concentrations varies directly with the organic carbon content of the sediments from 1910 to ~1980, suggesting enhanced removal of Mo during times of increased productivity in the lake, and anoxic conditions at the sediment/water interface. This coincides with low lake levels. The elemental composition of the sediments in Pyramid Lake clearly reflect the timing of important anthropogenic activities and climatic variations that have taken place within the watershed over the past 240 years.     

浅谈湖泊沉积环境演变中元素地球化学的应用及原理

湖泊沉积物中某些元素的含量、比值及分布特征在区域气候与环境变化方面的应用研究发展迅速.介绍了常量元素的含量及其比值分析,有机质中特征元素含量及比值分析,同位素分布特征,稀土元素模式分析几个方法.利用常量元素和有机质特征元素的含量及比值的升高或降低来指示沉积时期湖泊流域温度、降水量等气候变化并建立湖泊演变的气候干湿波动曲线,也可以获得沉积时期元素迁移变化的过程;利用同位素分布特征和稀土元素模式分析来测定沉积速率和建立演化年序,也可以判断湖泊演化过程和水源补给条件等.     

The relationship between zinc and organic content in centre-lake bottom sediments

The relationship between Zn and organic content, the latter measured by percentage weight loss on ignition (LOI) is investigated in a suite of 3844 centre-lake bottom sediments from east-central Saskatchewan. The data indicate that Zn values have a strong sympathetic increase with LOI below 12% LOI. Zn values tend to stabilize above 12% LOI, in actuality they decrease slowly from 12 to 50% LOI before decreasing at an accelerated rate over 50% LOI.It is proposed that the change from a sympathetic Zn vs. LOI relationship to an antipathetic relationship occurs because there is insufficient Zn available, from weathering, etc., in the lake water of sampled lakes to maintain the sympathetic relationship. Therefore, the lack of Zn, together with the increasing availability of organic material, creates an excess adsorption capacity of the lake sediments. Below 12% LOI, in lake sediments that do not have an excess adsorption capacity, Zn distribution patterns will be partly controlled by the amount of organic material present. Thus, Zn in these lake sediments may not truly reflect the chemistry of a drainage basin. Whereas, above 12% LOI, where there is an excess adsorption capacity in the sediments, the Zn distribution patterns will more closely reflect the chemistry of a drainage basin. The observed decrease in Zn values obvious over 50% LOI may be reflecting a dilution factor introduced by the ever increasing load of organic material to a system which is not receiving more Zn.It is concluded that centre-lake bottom sediments whose organic content is dominantly in the range of 12–50% LOI form the most effective sample media for regional lake sediment surveys.     

Diatoms,spatial distribution and physicochemical characteristics of the Wular lake sediments,Kashmir valley,Jammu and Kashmir

Lakes and wetlands are dynamic geomorphic units of a landscape that hold geochemical signatures of sediment provenance and paleo-environmental shifts and are major sinks for organic matter accumulation. The source of organic matter is diverse in lake sediments and varies widely with the type and size of the lake and hence it is important to understand the source of organic carbon (terrestrial or in situ) in lake systems in order to monitor the health of the lake. Wular lake, located in north Kashmir, is one of the largest fresh water lake in India, situated at an average elevation of 1580m ASL. The lake is fed by a number of watersheds that bring a diverse type of sediments and organic matter and thus deposit them into the Wular lake basin. In order to understand sediment distribution pattern, content and source of organic matter, sediment provenance and the persisting environment in the Wular lake, 32 lake floor sediment samples covering the entire lake were collected and analyzed for organic element analysis, CaCO3, organic matter, sediment texture and diatom analysis. The results indicated that sediments in the lake are dominated by silt and silty clay. The organic carbon in the lake ranged from 0.83%-4.52% and nitrogen varied from 0.06%-0.5%. The Carbon to Nitrogen (C/N) ratios (9.04 to 22.03) indicate a mixed source of organic carbon but dominated by in situ lake sources from the vascular and lake biota accumulation. The diatom analysis revealed the occurrence of a diverse type of species along the sampling sites present within the lake. The wide distribution of the diatom species such as Cymbella, Cyclotella and Tabularia etc. in the lake indicate high organic pollution and alkaline fresh water environment prevailing in the lake.     

Comparison of Synchrotron Radiation X-Ray Fluorescence with Conventional Techniques for the Analysis of Sedimentary Samples

A comparison is made of elemental analyses of sediment samples (lake bottom sediments and sediments from the petroliferous Bazhenovka Formation) by five competitive methods (synchrotron radiation X-ray fluorescence (SR-XRF), INAA, ICP-MS, AAS and traditional XRF). The object of this study was to identify the most suitable analytical techniques for applications in sedimentary geochemistry. Advantages and shortcomings of the five techniques were considered with respect to applications related to studies of palaeo-climate changes recorded in sedimentary cores from Lake Baikal and the geochemical stratigraphy of the Bazhenovka Formation, which is rich in organic material. We have concluded that SR-XRF was the best technique for producing extensive analytical data series, from the point of view of its speed, ease of application, cost, non-destructive nature and sensitivity, which allowed for the simultaneous determination of more than twenty elements of geochemical interest in small samples of sediments. An additional benefit of the method was demonstrated when used for the independent certification of geological reference materials. International reference samples BIL-1 and SDO-1 were certified by means of this method without use of reference materials. Analyses were based on the physics of the theory of energy transport.     

Source/process apportionment of major and trace elements in sinking particles in the Sargasso sea

Elemental composition of the particle flux at the Oceanic Flux Program (OFP) time-series site off Bermuda was measured from January 2002 to March 2005. Eighteen elements (Mg, Al, Si, P, Ca, Sc, Ti, V, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Sr, Cd, Ba and Pb) in sediment trap material from 500, 1500 and 3200 m depths were quantified using fusion-HR-ICPMS. Positive Matrix Factorization (PMF) was used to elucidate sources, elemental associations and processes that affect geochemical behavior in the water column.Results provide evidence for intense elemental cycling between the sinking flux material and the dissolved and suspended pools within mesopelagic and bathypelagic waters. Biological processing and remineralization rapidly deplete the sinking flux material in organic matter and associated elements (N, P, Cd, Zn) between 500 and 1500 m depth. Suspended particle aggregation, authigenic mineral precipitation, and chemical scavenging enriches the flux material in lithogenic minerals, barite and redox sensitive elements (Mn, Co, V, Fe). A large increase in the flux of lithogenic elements is observed with depth and confirms that the northeast Sargasso is a significant sink for advected continental materials, likely supplied via Gulf Stream circulation.PMF resolved major sources that contribute to sinking flux at all depths (carbonate, high-Mg carbonate, opal, organic matter, lithogenic material, and barite) as well as additional depth-specific elemental associations that contribute about half of the compositional variability in the flux. PMF solutions indicate close geochemical associations of barite-opal, Cd-P, Zn-Co, Zn-Pb and redox sensitive elements in the sinking flux material at 500 m depth. Major reorganizations of element associations occur as labile carrier phases break down and elements redistribute among new carrier phases deeper in the water column.Factor scores show strong covariation and similar temporal phasing among the three trap depths and indicate a tight coupling in particle flux compositional variability throughout the water column. Seasonality in flux composition is primarily driven by dilution of the lithogenic component with freshly-produced biogenic material during the late winter primary production maximum. Temporal trends in scores reveal subtle non-seasonal changes in flux composition occurring on month long timescales. This non-seasonal variability may be driven by changes in the biogeochemical properties of intermediate water masses that pass through the region and which affect rates of chemical scavenging and/or aggregation within the water column.     

Shift in detrital sedimentation in the eastern Bay of Bengal during the late Quaternary

Down-core variations of granulometric, geochemical and mineral magnetism of a 70-cm long sediment core retrieved from the eastern Bay of Bengal abyssal region were studied to understand sedimentation pattern and sediment provenance during the last ～12 kyr BP. Based on down-core physical and elemental variations, three units were identified: unit 3 (70–43 cm) is a ～30 cm thick clayey silt organic carbon-rich (0.5–0.92%) turbidite probably delivered by the Brahmaputra River during the late Quaternary period. Units 2 (43–24 cm) and 1 (24–0 cm) represent enhanced and reduced supply of coarse-grained detrital sediments from the Ganges River during early and late Holocene period, respectively. Increased terrigenous supply dilutes calcium carbonate (CaCO₃) and biogenic elements (P, Ba and Cu) in units 3 and 2. On the contrary, a reduction in detrital input enhances CaCO₃ and biogenic elements in unit 1. Lithogenic elements (Ti, Al, K and Rb) and shale-normalized REE patterns in all three units suggest terrigenous source. The shift in provenance from the Brahmaputra to the Ganges derived sediments is evident by a sharp increase in sediment grain size, increased concentration and grain size assemblages of magnetic minerals, lithogenic elements concentration and La_n/Yb_n ratio. This study highlights terrigenous dilution on biogenic sedimentation in the eastern Bay of Bengal sediments.     

古海洋生产力指标研究进展

寻求反映古海洋生产力变化的指标是古海洋学研究的重要内容。生物沉积物、营养元素、微量元素和同位素、古生物资料等与古海洋生产力具有一定的关系,常用于古海洋生产力的重建工作:(1)生物沉积物主要包括有机碳、生物碳酸盐和生物硅质沉积等,其埋藏速率在很大程度上受到古海洋生产力的控制,常常用作古海洋生产力的替代性指标;(2)在地质时间尺度上,古海洋生产力主要受到大洋中营养元素可利用程度的控制,因此营养元素的相关记录可以提供古海洋生产力状况的重要信息;(3)海洋中某些微量元素的地球化学行为或者与有机质的改造有关,或者受到氧化还原条件变化的控制,或者受到某种浮游生物的生长的影响,从而能够直接或者间接地指示古海洋生产力的变化;(4)海相碳酸盐和有机质的碳同位素记录,海相有机物的氮同位素比值也用以再造古生产率等古海洋学参数;(5)可以利用对微体化石丰度值及其组合反映古生产力的变化。     

龙感湖沉积物中人类活动导致的营养盐累积通量估算*

通过LL-4孔沉积环境指标研究表明,近100年来龙感湖地区人类活动加强,导致营养元素磷、碳、氮以及铁在沉积物中的浓度均呈增长趋势,特别是1950年以来,随着大量人口的迁入,围湖造田、破坏湖滨湿地等造成水土流失加剧,沉积物质量累积速率加快,同时营养元素累积量急剧增加。根据营养元素与参比元素Al, Fe和Ti之间的关系,以及不同营养元素之间的相互关系,人类活动引起的累积量得以从自然背景上区分出来,结合沉积物质量累积速率计算,人类活动引起的磷、有机碳和氮的累积通量分别在151.0~889.4mg/m²a,4.3~149.0g/m²a和0.5~18.6g/m²a间变化。碎屑物质的累积稀释了沉积物中营养盐的富集浓度,龙感湖草型湖泊的特点,使湖泊沉积环境易于呈氧化环境,生物和地球化学作用,也削弱了人类活动累积营养盐的变化幅度,使沉积中营养盐呈平稳上升的趋势。     

Geochemistry of trace and minor elements in sediments and manganese micronodules from the Angola Basin

Indicator role of trace elements in sedimentation and ore formation is considered for sediments from Station 2182 in the Angola Basin. It is shown that pelagic sediments were formed from two main sources: biogenic calcium carbonate and lithogenic sediment component compositionally similar to the miopelagic clay. Increase of the Mn/Al ratio, Ce anomaly in the REE composition, Co/Ni and Mo/W ratios, and anomalous accumulation of Tl, Pb, Bi and other microelements indicate that sediments from horizons 15–20 and 30–35 cm contain significant amounts of hydrogenic material as Fe-Mn oxyhydroxides. Manganese micronodules (MN) were extracted from different horizons (10–15, 15–20, and 30–35 cm) and analyzed to study the hydrogenic component. Their development is related to retardation of biogenic and lithogenic sedimentation. The studied manganese micronodules are represented by the hydrogenic-diagenetic formations >100 μm in size with Mn/Fe = 2.0–2.8, Co/Ni = 0.2–0.4, Ce an = 4.2–5.7, and Mo/W = 5.2–7.9. The MN content is too low to affect the major and trace element composition of sediments. The main part of Fe and Mn is confined to fraction <10 μm.     

湖相自生沉积作用与环境──兼论西藏色林错沉积物记录

内陆封闭湖泊自生沉积作用与当地的气候、环境密切相关，自生沉积速率主要受湖水蒸发量和补给水的化学成分控制，并受湖面变化影响。西藏色林错沉积物岩芯地球化学和矿物组成的变化揭示了当地１２０００年以来的气候和湖面变化，其中１２０００—１００００ａＢ．Ｐ．干旱、低湖面，１００００—４２００ａＢ．Ｐ．温湿、湖面上升，４２００年以来的干旱、湖面波动下降的趋势。     

A comparison of regional geochemical data from lakes and streams in northern Labrador; implications for mixed-media geochemical mapping

Labrador has been covered by reconnaissance-scale geochemical surveys under the National Geochemical Reconnaissance program. Lake sediment and water were the chief sample media, but stream sediment and water were employed in the mountainous terrain of northern Labrador. The main objective of these surveys was mineral resource assessment, but the data are also relevant to geological and environmental studies, and would be most useful to the non-specialist if the data from the two drainage types could be combined to produce unified element distribution maps for the whole region.A comparison of stream and lake data for a 5,700-km² area where both drainage types were sampled suggests that only the pH of the lake and stream waters are directly comparable, showing a common range and similar spatial distribution. Comparing the two types of sediment, most elements show obvious differences in either median content or range or both, indicating that stream and lake sediment are geochemically distinct media, and their element contents cannot be compared directly. The distribution patterns of Cu, Ni and U reflect similar bedrock features in both sediment types. In contrast, Co, F, Fe, Hg, Mn, V and Zn show little or no spatial correlation between stream and lake sediment, but are strongly intercorrelated in the stream sediment data set.The sediments collected from lakes in Labrador represent disturbed column, about 40 cm in length, of organic debris that accumulated over the past several hundred years. Metal accumulation in the sediment is largely through fixation from inflowing surface and groundwater by microorganisms, coprecipitation with hydrous Fe and Mn oxides, sorption by clay minerals and chemical and biochemical processes at and just below the sediment/water interface. The stream sediments in this study were collected from active sediment, and represent principally the mechanical-weathering products of bedrock, with variable amounts of organic matter and hydrous Fe and Mn oxides. Considering the difference in the two sediment types, it is probably not surprising that there is rather limited spatial correlation between the geochemistry of the two sediment types indicating that to a large extent each medium reflects a different facet of the bedrock geochemistry. Only for a few elements should the data sets be merged. The degree of spatial correlation for U, Ni and Cu increases as the data are generalized by averaging into larger blocks, suggesting that the combined data sets will be more successful in defining broad crustal geochemical features rather than local details. The implication of this study for international geochemical mapping is that geochemical patterns for many elements are strongly dependent on the sample medium chosen. Therefore, when it is necessary to change sample media in passing from one terrain type to another, a comparative study must be carried out to determine how the geochemistry of the different sample media compare spatially.     

Sediment colour reflectance spectroscopy as a proxy for wet/dry cycles at Lake El'gygytgyn,Far East Russia,during Marine Isotope Stages 8 to 12

Marine Isotope Stage 11 has been proposed as an analogue for the present interglacial interval; yet, terrestrial climate records from both this region and time interval are rare. The sediments deposited at Lake El'gygytgyn (67°30′N, 172°5′E) in Far East Russia contain a 3·56 Ma record of climate variability. This study presents a high‐resolution record of sediment colour change from Marine Isotope Stage 8 to 12 (ca 275 to 475 ka) and demonstrates the link between lake catchment processes and climate variability. The hue colour parameter, calculated from data collected via colour reflectance spectroscopy in the visible spectrum (380 to 720 nm), exhibits correspondence with global climate records. Determining the source of sediment colour changes was achieved through detailed mineralogical and sedimentological methods, and linked to colour changes through a series of colour sensitivity tests. Mineralogical data, measured by X‐ray diffraction, reveal fluctuations in concentrations of clay minerals corresponding to colour changes. Further analyses of the clay mineral assemblages show no change in relative clay mineral abundances, yet demonstrate a lake catchment dominated by physical weathering processes. Using measured mineral abundances, reconstructions of sediment colour based on colour reflectance mineral standards link mineral and clay mineral content to overall sediment colour. Colour sensitivity tests demonstrate the ability of iron oxide minerals to stain sediments red. Additionally, colour sensitivity to organic matter content was tested, suggesting that organic content drives variability in the red portion of the spectrum and darkens the overall colour signal. Sediment colour is then ultimately linked to physical weathering of bedrock minerals, with small amounts of chemical weathering producing iron oxides during wet intervals. Fluctuations in the sediment colour reveal a high‐resolution record of wet/dry cycles, and provide new information about wet periods for the Russian Arctic region not yet understood from other lake proxy records.     

Secondary dispersion of trace elements in bottom sediments of the High Dam Lake,South Egypt and North Sudan

Thirty-four chemical elements, pH, total nitrogen, and total organic carbon were determined in 49 bottom sediment samples from the whole High Dam Lake in order to improve our understanding of geochemical characteristics of these sediments and geochemical patterns of trace elements and related feeding sources. The present study revealed that the lake were clearly discriminated into three portions in accordance with the sediment geochemistry and geographic position. Likewise, the analyzed elements in the entire lake sediments were classified into six geochemical association patterns that are indicative of the contributing geogenic and anthropogenic sources. As has been noted here, mineralogy, anthropogenic inputs, pH, and organic matter had significant roles in controlling the behavior, concentration, dispersion, and geochemical patterns of the trace elements in the lake sediments. Consequently, the elevated concentration of Bi, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Ga, Mn, Mo, Ni, Sc, V, Y, and Zn posed moderate contamination level in the sediments. At the same time, the enhancement of Ag, Se, and Te levels caused contamination up to very high levels. Admittedly, the contamination levels were generated by natural and human activities that are coming from the Nile basin countries. Despite progressive deterioration of these sediments, they still have economic applications.