Discussion of “Consequences of dike breaches and dike overflow in a bifurcating river system” by Anouk Bomers,Ralph M. J. Schielen and Suzanne J. M. H. Hulscher

In this discussion, the authors will point out that even if Bomers et al. (Nat Hazards 97:309–334, 2019) tackle an important problem, ignoring the uncertainties related to the roughness coefficients, Manning coefficients, the downstream boundary and most importantly the errors of the chosen software, HEC-RAS, are serious shortcomings of their study.

     

裂隙岩溶含水系统溢流泉演化过程的数值模拟

本文利用非连续裂隙网络介质模型,耦合水动力条件和碳酸盐溶蚀动力条件,建立岩溶含水系统演化的数学模型,并用数值法进行模拟分析。在已建数值模型基础上,构造了两组实例模型(降水入渗补给的裂隙岩溶含水系统和河流补给的裂隙岩溶含水系统)来研究裂隙岩溶系统中溢流泉早期演化过程。模拟发现,裂隙岩溶含水系统演化过程中,裂隙不断被溶蚀拓宽,致使系统中潜水位不断下降,许多小泉被疏干;同时不同裂隙之间存在溶蚀差异,在潜水位及优势通道附近的裂隙溶蚀速度快,而其它位置则相对慢得多,差异溶蚀促使系统形成优势溶管,优势溶管逐渐袭夺水流,形成大泉。另外对比两模型发现,降水入渗为主要补给源的裂隙岩溶含水系统,泉管道从汇向源发育;而河流入渗为主要补给源的裂隙岩溶含水系统,泉管道则由源向汇发育。      

Mercury concentrations in a contaminated river system in Kazakhstan and biomonitoring of the local population

The River Nura in central Kazakhstan has been heavily contaminated by mercury （Hg） from an acetaldehyde plant located in the industrial city of Temirtau. The plant released Hg-containing wastewater into the river from the 1950s until the mid 1990s and strongly contaminated the bed sediments up to 25 km downstream. In addition, a local power station released an estimated 6 million tonnes of fly-ash into the water which has adsorbed much of the Hg and has become mixed with the natural sediments. River water,fish and agricultural land in the floodplain are also contaminated by Hg. Humans are exposed to Hg primarily via the consumption of contaminated fish from the river. A survey was undertaken in June/July 2005 to investigate Hg concentrations in river water, drinking water, sediments and fish. To estimate the risk posed to the local population, approximately 300 hair samples were collected from people living in villages near the most contaminated section of the river, at a distance of between 5 and 30 km downstream of the acetaldehyde plant, and their dietary habits were recorded. Mercury concentrations in river water ranged from 2-3 ng/L upstream of the source of the pollution to 348 ng/L downstream of the factory outfall pipe. Some drinking water wells close to the river were contaminated, but deeper wells had Hg concentrations below the detection limit.     

地下河系统水动态监测网络优化对比分析:以桂林海洋-寨底地下河系统为例

基于我国南方地区岩溶发育极不均匀、水位水质动态变化快的特点,通过对信息熵法和防污性能法所得结果的对比,分析在缺少系列监测资料条件下,利用岩溶水系统防污性能评价结果快速布设地下河系统水动态监测网的可行性及其布设原则。根据防污性能评价结果,结合水循环特征,桂林海洋-寨底地下河系统水动态监测网需由17个监测站组成;采用信息熵法对现有35个监测站进行优化后,认为只需要12个监测站就可组成最优监测网,但这12个监测站点与采用防污性能评价法得到的点位完全重合,且均位于防污性能差的地区。对比分析认为,以地下水系统防污性能评价结果布设地下水动态监测网是可行性的,因为岩溶发育区既是防污性能差的地区,也是地下水动态变化快的地区,能充分反映地下河系统水质水量变化。采用防污性能评价法布设地下水动态监测网时,需要充分认识和了解地下河系统水文地质条件和地下河管道结构特征,且需要遵循以下原则:(1)在岩溶发育相对较弱的系统中部(基本上不存在防污性能差的地区)不设置监测站点;(2)在距离地下河出口较近的岩溶发育区内(即防污性能差的地区)监测站点可由地下河出口替代;(3)对于多支管道系统,岩溶发育相对较弱且距离较短的小型支管道上可以不布设监测站,由支管道与主管道交汇处的监测站代替。     

Metal species in a Boreal river system affected by acid sulfate soils

The bioavailability of metals and their potential for environmental pollution depends not simply on total concentrations but on their chemical form. Consequently, knowledge of aqueous metal speciation is essential in investigating potential metal toxicity and mobility. Dissolved (<1 kDa), colloidal (1 kDa–0.45 μm) and particulate (>0.45 μm) size fractions of sulfate, organic C (OC) and 18 metals/metalloids were investigated in the extremely acidic Vörå River system in Western Finland, which is strongly affected by acid sulfate (AS) soils. In addition, geochemical modelling was used to predict the formation of free ions and complexes in these acidic waters. The most important finding of this study is that the very large amounts of elements known to be released from AS soils (including Al, Ca, Cd, Co, Cu, Mg, Mn, Na, Ni, Si and U) occur and can prevail mainly in toxic forms throughout acidic river systems; as free ions and/or sulfate-complexes. This has serious effects on the biota and particularly dissolved Al can be expected to have acute effects on fish and other organisms. In the study area, only the relatively forested upstream area (higher pH and contents of OC) had significant amounts of a few bioavailable elements (including Al, Cu, Ni and U) due to complexation with the more abundantly occurring colloidal OC in the upstream area. It is, however, notable that some of the colloidal/particulate metals were most likely associated with metal bearing phyllosilicates eroded from clay soils. Moreover, the mobilisation of Fe and As was small and As was predicted to be associated with Fe oxides, indicating a considerable influence of Fe oxides on the mobilisation/immobilisation processes of As. Elements will ultimately be precipitated in the recipient estuary, where the acidic metal-rich river water will gradually be diluted/neutralised with brackish seawater in the Gulf of Bothnia. According to speciation modelling, such a pH rise may first cause precipitation of Al, Cu and U together with organic matters closest to the river mouth, in line with previous sediment studies from the estuary.     

Recent sand volcanoes in the sand of a dike under construction

Sand volcanoes are small volcano-like features. They range in diameter from a few centimetres to several metres. Five volcanoes with a maximum diameter of 2 m were observed during the construction of a dike on the coast of Northwestern Germany. The cones reached heights of about 15 cm with craters in the middle. The rise of the volcanoes is explained by de-watering of sediment.     

The petrology of a melilitolite,melteigite, carbonatite and syenite ring dike system,in the Gardiner complex,East Greenland

The Tertiary Gardiner complex in East Greenland comprises ultramafic cumulates cut by dikes, ring dikes and cone sheets. One major ring dike is of melilite-rick rocks (melilitolites), and shows phase layering and cryptic layering with respect to melilite, perovskite and phologopite. The vertical variation in the assemblages through the ring dike is consistent with established fractionation trends in undersaturated melilite-bearing experimental systems. Related veins and dikes are: a) undersaturated rocks of the melteigite-ijolite-urtite/nepheline syenite suite, b) melanite-calcite veins and søvite dikes and sheets and c) coarse-grained magnetite-phlogopite-diopside-calcite pegmatites and dolomite rocks. It is proposed that a CO₂-bearing Ln-normative nephelinite liquid is parential to both melilitolites and related veins through a combination of fractional crystallization, liquid immiscibility and CO₂-metasomatism of dunite country rocks. Unlike other localities where melilitolites are attributed to metasomatic processes, the Gardiner melilitolites are magmatic.     

Correction to: Modelling effects of an asphalt road at a dike crest on dike cover erosion onset during wave overtopping

Natural Hazards - The article was published Open Access under the Dutch Compact Agreement; however, due to an internal system error, previous HTML rendering of the article did not reflect this.     

MERLIN: a flood hazard forecasting system for coastal river reaches

Natural Hazards - This study presents MERLIN, an innovative flood hazard forecasting system for predicting discharges and water levels at flood prone areas of coastal catchments. Discharge...     

Mercury distribution and transport in a contaminated river system in Kazakhstan and associated impacts on aquatic biota

The River Nura in Central Kazakhstan has been heavily polluted by Hg originating from an acetaldehyde plant. A number of studies were undertaken to investigate the transport, fate and bioavailability of Hg in this river system. The sediments within a 20 km section of the river downstream of the effluent outfall canal are highly polluted and are acting as a strong source of surface water contamination. Mercury transport in the river is dominated by the remobilization of contaminated bed sediments and river bank erosion during the annual spring flood. Peak Hg concentrations in unfiltered surface water samples during a larger than usual flood event in 2004 were in the order of 1600–4300 ng L⁻¹. The majority of the particulate-bound Hg appears to be sedimented in the shallow Intumak reservoir 75 km downstream of the source of the pollution, leading to a drop in aqueous Hg concentrations by an order of magnitude. Nevertheless, background concentrations of Hg in surface water are not reached until at least 200 km downstream, and during the flood period Hg is also detected in the terminal wetlands of the river.Mercury concentrations in sediment cores taken from the river bed in the most contaminated section of the Nura ranged from 9.95 to 306 mg kg⁻¹. Methylmercury (MeHg) levels in shallow sediment cores were highest in surface sediments and ranged between 4.9 and 39 μg kg⁻¹, but were generally less than 0.1% of total Hg (THg). A significant inverse relationship was found between THg concentrations and the percentage of MeHg formed in the sediments, irrespective of the sampling depth. The observed relationship was confirmed by comparison with results from a different river system, indicating that it may be true also for other highly contaminated aquatic systems. It is hypothesized that at high THg levels in severely contaminated sediments, the accumulation of MeHg may be limited by increasingly efficient demethylation processes, and that this underlying trend in sediments is the reason why MeHg levels in surface water are often found to be higher at less contaminated sites compared to upstream sites.Mercury concentrations in biota in the most contaminated section of the river were 15–20 times higher than background levels. Fish were found to be impacted for more than 125 km downstream from the source, indicating significant transport of dissolved MeHg to downstream areas and/or in-situ MeHg production in less contaminated downstream reaches. There were also indications that impoundments may increase the bioavailability of Hg.     

Environmental quality assessment on a river system polluted by mining activities

In this study, adverse impacts of heavy metal pollution, originating from mining, smelting and panning activities, on the aquatic ecosystem of the Lean River in south China, were evaluated by integrating the chemical, toxicological and ecological responses of single and multiple metals in overlying water, surface sediment and floodplain topsoil. The assessment results indicated that a highly localized distribution pattern was closely associated with the pollution sources along the river bank. Based on the combined indices, deterioration of local environmental quality was induced mainly by two sources. One was strong acidity and a large amount of Cu in the drainage from the Dexing Cu Mine. Another was high concentrations of Pb and Zn in the effluents released from many smelters and mining/panning activities in the riparian zone. Some possible suggestions on source control may be effective in dealing with these issues.     

土壤-含水层侧渗系统在净化河水中的应用——以郑州市索须河工程为例

由于降水较少以及地下水超采,北方地区大部分河流基流匮乏,河水主要来自未经深度处理的城市生活污水和工业废水,河水水质难以达标.在这些地区,利用河流漫滩土壤和含水层的天然净化能力,建立近自然土壤-含水层侧渗系统是净化河水的有效途径之一.在介绍侧渗系统净化机理及适用条件的基础上,通过室内试验和野外示范工程研究索须河土壤-含水层对河水中氨氮的去除效果.室内试验表明该处土壤及浅部含水层对氨氮的去除主要通过稀释、吸附和微生物等作用;通过对示范工程典型剖面上的监测井观测表明该系统对氨氮的去除效果良好,受降水补给的土壤和含水层使得河水中的氨氮硝化为亚硝酸盐和硝酸盐.硝酸盐在地下水中很难被去除,只有少部分通过反硝化作用转化成N2.土壤-含水层侧渗系统行之有效,可应用于类似索须河的北方河流.     

河流水系连通性机制及计算方法综述

河流水系连通性具有水文调蓄、保障生物迁徙通畅、改善水土环境等功能,目前主要从水文、景观和生态等方面对其进行了定义,而河流水系连通性对社会发展也发挥着重要作用,故河流水系连通性具有自然和社会双重属性,其连通性机制主要表现为纵向、横向、垂向连通性。目前主要从景观学、水文学、水力学、生态学等学科角度提出了图论法、水文-水力学法、景观法、生物法和综合指标法等计算方法,各方法有其适用性和不足,应用中须针对实际问题选择适宜方法或进行修正。河流水系连通性未来研究应综合多尺度、多领域、多学科,在研究内容上,重点开展尺度协同、连通性含义界定、响应机理及修复问题研究,在研究手段上,重点开展多方法、多技术集成问题研究。     

Geochemical and petrological aspects of dike intrusions in the Lycian ophiolites (SW Turkey): a case study for the dike emplacement along the Tauride Belt Ophiolites

Lycian ophiolites located in the Western Taurides, are cut at all structural levels by dolerite and gabbro dikes. The dolerite dikes from this area are both pristine and metamorphosed. The non-metamorphosed dikes are observed both in the peridotites and in the metamorphic sole rocks. Accordingly, the non-metamorphosed dikes cutting the metamorphic sole were generated after cooling of the metamorphic sole rocks. The metamorphosed dolerite dikes are only observed in the peridotites. The physical conditions and timing of the metamorphism for the metamorphosed dolerite dikes are similar to those of the metamorphic sole rocks of the Lycian ophiolites suggesting that the metamorphosed dolerite dikes were metamorphosed together with the metamorphic sole rocks. Therefore, the dike injections in the western part of the Tauride Belt Ophiolites occurred before and after the generation of the metamorphic sole rocks. All metamorphosed and non-metamorphosed dikes are considered to have the same origin and all of them are subduction-related as inferred from whole-rock geochemistry and lead isotopes. Lead isotope compositions of whole rocks of both dike groups cluster in a narrow field in conventional Pb isotope diagrams (²⁰⁶Pb/²⁰⁴Pb = 18.40–18.64; ²⁰⁷Pb/²⁰⁴Pb = 15.56–15.58; ²⁰⁸Pb/²⁰⁴Pb = 38.23–38.56) indicating a derivation from an isotopically homogeneous source. On the ²⁰⁷Pb/²⁰⁴Pb versus ²⁰⁶Pb/²⁰⁴Pb diagram, isotope compositions of the dikes plot slightly below the orogen curve suggesting contributions from mantle reservoir enriched by subducted oceanic lithosphere. Such a signature is typical of island arc magmatic rocks and supports the formation of the investigated rocks in a subduction-related environment.     

水沙变异条件下的河流系统调整及其研究进展

保持河流各方面整体协调是流域开发研究的重点和必然趋势,研究水沙变异条件下河流系统的调整机理,对于河流健康的保障具有重要意义.总结分析了水沙变异与河流系统的作用特性,明确了河流系统中水文、水力、地貌、生态等方面的各种调整实际上是与系统输入特性的特定变化相联系的;回顾了对河流系统及其功能的认识过程与研究现状,展望了将来的研究趋势.     

Interpreting the response of a dryland river system to Late Quaternary climate change

A U-series calcrete chronology has been constructed for three Late Quaternary terrace units, termed the D1, D2 and D3 terraces in age descending order, from the Rio Aguas river system of the Sorbas basin, southeast Spain. The D1 terrace formed between 30,300±4400 year BP and 12,140±360 year BP, correlating well with the Last Glacial Maximum when rates of sediment supply would have increased greatly, because of higher rates of weathering, reduced vegetation cover and weak soil development. The D2 terrace formed between 12,800±1100 year BP and 9,600±530 year BP, correlating well with the Younger Dryas event. The D3 terrace could only be poorly constrained to the early Holocene and no unequivocal cause could be assigned to this period of aggradation. The sedimentology and geomorphology of the D2 terrace suggests, however, that the aggradation of this unit was a response to diapirism/karstic processes occurring within the underlying Messinian gypsum strata and the subsequent damming of the Aguas system. Therefore, despite its coincident occurrence with the Younger Dryas, aggradation of the D2 terrace is unrelated to climate change. The style of this response, controlled predominantly by the characteristics of the underlying bedrock, makes correlating the terrace record of the Aguas with other systems in the Mediterranean unreliable. This study, therefore, highlights the problems of correlating fluvial sequences in regions of variable tectonics, climatic history and bedrock geology and emphasises the need to properly understand the main controls on individual fluvial systems before any attempt is made to correlate their depositional histories.     

Fluid inclusions in chromite from a pyroxenite dike of the Pindos ophiolite complex

Chromitite occurrences in the Pindos ophiolite complex are located in elongated dunite bodies hosted in harzburgite of the mantle sequence, and show a compositional variation from high-Al to high-Cr type. Although the majority of the chromite ores is characterized by paucity in fluid inclusions, abundant fluid inclusions were found in chromite hosted by a coarse-grained pyroxenite dike at the Spanos Valley, Pindos complex. Chromite occurs in highly variable proportion in an orthopyroxene matrix or as inclusions in orthopyroxenes. Its composition is homogeneous and has an average Cr/(Cr+Al) ratio 0.73.The investigation of chromitites revealed the presence of primary and secondary fluid inclusions. The primary inclusions are of following types: Three-phase solid-liquid-gas, three-phase liquid-liquid-gas, two-phase liquid-gas and one-phase octahedron crystal-shaped. The secondary fluid inclusions are two-phase liquid-gas and mono-phase fluid inclusions.The presence of fluid inclusions in chromite aggregates hosted in orthopyroxenite dikes, in combination with the trace element contents in chromite concentrates and the mineralogical composition of the dikes may indicate that an aqueous phase separated from the magma.     

Quantitative interpretation of an evolving ancient river system

Multistorey sandstone bodies described from the Upper Devonian-Lower Carboniferous of Kerry Head (Ireland) are interpreted as deposits of aggrading, perennial, river channels migrating laterally across alluvial plains. Point bars displayed surface features such as scroll bars, chute channels and chute bars. Relatively uncommon channel fills are both coarse- and fine-grained. Quantitative interpretation of the sandstone bodies was accomplished by comparison with a physical model that predicts the sedimentology of single point bar deposits developed in channels of prescribed geometry and hydraulics. This analysis reveals that the separate storeys (point bars) in each sandstone body were deposited in a single channel belt in which channel geometry and hydraulics varied little with time (order of 10³ yr) and space (order of 10³ m). Two southerly flowing rivers of markedly different size were responsible for all sandstone bodies: bankfull widths, depths and mean velocities of both rivers varied little with time (order of 10⁵ yr), implying a stable climatic setting. Channel sinuosities were usually 1.15–1.2 throughout the succession. Both rivers decreased in mean channel slope as time progressed, in association with a rising base-level and a shoreline encroaching from the south. Using Bridge & Leeder's (1979) alluvial stratigraphy model, the nature and distribution of channel sandstone bodies relative to overbank deposits in the succession can be explained by an average (compacted) floodplain deposition rate of about 0.005 m yr^?1, if avulsion occurred with a frequency of about once every 10³ yr. Local variation in the relative amount of channel sandstone in the succession is probably due to local tectonic control of deposition.