Trace element analyses of magnetites from andesitic and dacitic lavas from Bay of Plenty,New Zealand

Five magnetites from andesitic and dacitic lavas from the volcanoes Edgecumbe, Whale Island, and White Island were separated, and analysed for Mg, Ti, Cu, V, Ni, Co, Mn, and Cr. The vanadium contents provide difficulties for Osborn's (1962) hypothesis for the origin of calc-alkaline volcanic rocks.     

Magma Origin and Evolution of White Island (Whakaari) Volcano, Bay of Plenty, New Zealand

White Island is an active composite stratovolcano in the Bayof Plenty, New Zealand, that comprises many small volume (<0·1km³) andesite–dacite lava flows and pyroclastic depositswith phenocryst contents of     

Potential impact of ash eruptions on dairy farms from a study of the effects on a farm in eastern Bay of Plenty,New Zealand; implications for hazard mitigation

This paper investigates the impact ash fall would have on dairy farming, based on a study of ‘Tulachard’, a dairy farming operation at Rerewhakaaitu, North Island, New Zealand. It includes analysis of the potential effects on the dairy shed and milking machine, electrical supply and distribution, water supply and distribution, tractors and other farm vehicles, farm buildings (haysheds, pump sheds, implement sheds, etc.), milk-tanker access to the farm and critical needs of dairy cows and farm to keep milking. One of the most vulnerable areas identified in the study was the cooling of milk at the milking shed, pending dairy tanker pick-up. The cooling system’s condenser is exposed to the atmosphere and falling ash would make it highly vulnerable. Laboratory testing with wet and dry ash was conducted to determine its resilience to ash ingestion. It was found to perform satisfactorily during dry testing, but during wet testing significant clogging/blocking of the condenser’s radiator occurred, dramatically reducing airflow through the condenser. Specific mitigation recommendations have been developed that include cleaning with compressed air and adapting farm management techniques to lessen usage of the condenser during an ash-fall event. Specific recommendations for management of dairy farm operation are given to mitigate the effects of an ash-fall event.

Flow transformations in slumps: a case study from the Waitemata Basin,New Zealand

The process by which slumps transform into other flow types is an understudied phenomenon; generally, sedimentologists have assumed that this is how many debris flows and turbidity currents form, yet there is a paucity of information relating to the specific processes involved. This paper aims to redress this imbalance and investigates the processes of slump flow transformation using a well‐exposed example, where the precursor slump and flows to which it was transforming have been preserved in the outcrop. A detailed field investigation of the Lower Miocene, Little Manly Slump, located within the Waitemata Basin, New Zealand, reveals a complex bi‐partite deposit, comprised of a lower slump‐debrite unit and an upper turbidite unit, separated from one another by an impersistent contact. Reconstruction of slump evolution, from preserved strain indicators, shows that slump motion was unsteady and non‐uniform, and that the slump arrested rapidly. Flow transformation is directly linked to slump evolution and progressed through the multiple processes of body transformation, fluidization transformation and surface transformation. The resultant flow comprised a very dense lower unit with slump and debris flow phases overlain by a turbidity current. This study shows that flow transformation did not result in en masse transformation to a debris flow by a single process, but rather it was characterized by partial transformation of the slump to generate a three‐phase flow. Density is thought to be the key parameter in controlling flow transformation efficiency, which appears to have varied rapidly as a function of slump unsteadiness and non‐uniformity.     

Eclogitic xenoliths from volcanic breccia at Kakanui,New Zealand

Eclogitic xenoliths consisting of tschermakitic augite and pyrope garnet, together with variable amounts of kaersutitic hornblende, are common in a volcanic breccia of Lower Oligocene age at Kakanui, New Zealand. The breccia also contains xenocrysts of these minerals, and xenoliths of peridotite. Modal analyses are given of a number of the eclogitic xenoliths, and chemical analyses of two of them and their component minerals. They are compared with similar xenoliths from Hoggar (Algeria), Salt Lake Crater (Hawaii), and Delegate (Australia), with eclogite xenoliths from kimberlites, and with garnet peridotites. These three types of igneous eclogites can be characterized by the nature of their clinopyroxene: tschermakitic in the xenoliths from basaltic rocks, jadeitic in the xenoliths from kimberlites, and chrome diopside in the garnet peridotites. The eclogitic xenoliths in basaltic rocks probably crystallized in the mantle at depths of about 60 km, but their rarity in contrast to the numerous occurrences of peridotite xenoliths poses some significant problems.     

Trench-slope channels from the New Zealand Jurassic: the Otekura Formation, Sandy Bay, South Otago

The Otekura Formation (Early Jurassic, Pseudaucella zone) at Sandy Bay comprises part of a 10+ km thick, regressive, forearc shelf and slope sequence, the Hokonui facies belt of the Rangitata Geosyncline. The Otekura Formation is dominantly fine grained, being mostly mudstone, silty mudstone and siltstone. The sediments are volcanogenic throughout. The upper 150 m of the formation contains two 20 m thick, channelized bodies of medium-thick bedded sandy flysch, each associated with thin bedded muddy flysch interpreted as overbank turbidites. Directional indicators within the channel sequence indicate emplacement from the south-southwest. In contrast, rare turbidites that occur below the channel sequence, within the background mudstone sediment, were emplaced from the east, i.e. at right angles to the channelized flows. The immediately overlying Omaru Formation contains more abundant macrofossils, intraclastic conglomerates, and appreciable amounts of traction-emplaced cross-bedded sand. Bioturbated calcareous siltstones with an in situ molluscan fauna follow (Boatlanding Formation), and are of shelf origin. The Omaru Formation is therefore interpreted as a shelf-slope break deposit, and the Otekura Formation as an upper slope facies. Reconnaissance studies indicate that the Otekura Formation is underlain by several kilometres of dominantly fine grained, deep water slope sediments, containing occasional sand and conglomerate filled channels similar to those here described in detail from the Otekura Formation. Such channels are inferred to form when a mass-transported sand, derived from failure higher on the slope, ploughs erosively into the sea floor. After their incision, the channels served for a short time as conduits for downslope transport of sediment, the redeposited deposits of which are found filling each channel. Both channel fills at Sandy Bay are capped by thin-bedded turbidites inferred to have overspilled from similar channels nearby on the slope.     

Some challenges of monitoring a potentially active volcanic field in a large urban area: Auckland volcanic field,New Zealand

Natural Hazards - The city of Auckland (population 1.3&nbsp;million) is built on and around a potentially active basaltic intraplate volcanic system, the Auckland volcanic field. This...     

Vulnerability assessments and their planning implications: a case study of the Hutt Valley, New Zealand

An understanding of vulnerability is not only crucial for the survival of the exposed communities to extreme events, but also for their adaptation to climate change. Vulnerability affects community participation in hazard mitigation, influences emergency response and governs adaptive capacity for the changing environmental and hazards characteristics. However, despite increased awareness, assessments and understanding of the processes that produce vulnerability, disaster risks prevail. This raises questions on the effectiveness of vulnerability assessments and their applications for hazard mitigation and adaptation. The literature includes a range of vulnerability assessment methods, wherein frequently the selection of any particular method is governed by the research objectives. On the other hand, hazard mitigation plans and policies even though mention vulnerability, their implementation pays less attention to the variations in its nature and underlying causes. This paper explores possible reasons for such gaps by exploring a case study of the Hutt Valley, New Zealand. It brings out the limitations of different vulnerability assessment methods in representing the local vulnerability and challenges they bring in planning for the vulnerability reduction. It argues that vulnerability assessment based on any particular method, such as deprivation index, principle component analysis, composite vulnerability index with or without weight, may not reveal the actual vulnerability of a place, and therefore, a comprehensive vulnerability assessment is needed.     

浅成侵入岩储层分布模式——以新西兰Lyttelton火山中新世浅成岩脉为例

侵入岩油气藏广泛分布于世界各盆地中,具有良好的油气勘探潜力。但对原生孔隙发育的岩脉储层模式的研究尚未引起足够的关注。本文以新西兰基督城Lyttelton火山西北部的中新世浅成岩脉为研究对象,根据野外露头调查、孔渗测试、图像分析和经验公式的渗透率计算,对其孔隙构成、储层分布模式和储层控制因素进行分析。结果表明:该区浅成侵入岩为孔隙-裂缝型储层,储集空间以气孔为主,冷凝收缩缝次之;气孔可见定向拉长的大直径椭圆形和离散的小直径圆形两类,对孔隙度的贡献以前者为主;柱状节理可见规则和不规则两类,后者的裂缝面密度较高;具有中孔-中渗的特征,局部高孔-高渗;柱体横截面形态和规则性是影响地层渗透性的关键因素。整体上,浅成岩脉从下到上孔隙度由小变大,柱状节理由规则变为不规则;气孔可由柱状节理沟通,其连通性受柱状节理缝间距、缝宽,以及定向拉长气孔与柱状节理之间的夹角控制;Lyttelton火山的浅成岩脉显示,冷凝固结阶段气孔的初始连通率可高达35%。综上,浅成岩脉可具有良好的储集性能,气孔初始连通性较高,可作为有利的勘探目标。     

Origin of the Matauri Bay halloysite deposit, Northland, New Zealand

At the Matauri Bay halloysite deposit, economically valuable halloysite-rich clays are hosted by a sanidine rhyolite dome (Ar–Ar dated at 10.1?±?0.03?Ma). The rhyolite dome intrudes an older basalt and is overlain by alluvial sediments and a younger basalt (4.0?±?0.7?Ma). A blanket-like, halloysite-rich zone is restricted to depths of 10–30?m from the present day erosion surface. Primary sanidine and plagioclase phenocrysts in rhyolite are completely leached out in the halloysite-rich zone but are only partially leached out at greater depth. Halloysite was formed by hydrolysis and cation leaching of sanidine and plagioclase phenocrysts and groundmass glass in the rhyolite, resulting in loss of K, Ca, Na and Si and enrichment in OH (LOI 6–10%) and Al₂O₃ (20–30%) relative to least-altered rhyolite with 1.8% LOI and 14.5% Al₂O₃. Oxygen and hydrogen isotope data indicate the halloysite is supergene rather than hydrothermal in origin, which is consistent with the absence of pyrite, alunite and other acid-sulphate type hydrothermal minerals, and with the blanket-like alteration profile. The dominance of halloysite over kaolinite was favoured by water-saturated weathering conditions during the late Miocene-Pliocene subtropical weathering regime in Northland.     

Sedimentology of 40 000 year Milankovitch-controlled cyclothems from central Hawke's Bay, New Zealand

Cyclothemic sedimentary rocks of the Plio-Pleistocene Petane Group outcrop extensively in the Tangoio block of central Hawke's Bay, New Zealand. They are products of inner to mid-shelf sedimentation and were deposited during glacio-eustatic sea level fluctuations along the western margin of a shallow, pericontinental seaway located in a forearc setting. The succession consists of five laterally continuous cyclothems, each containing a fine grained interval of silt and a coarse grained interval of siliciclastic sand ± gravel or limestone. Five sedimentary facies assemblages comprising 20 separate facies have been recognized. Coarse grained intervals of cyclothems were deposited mostly during relative sea level lowstands and contain up to four facies assemblages: (1) a non-marine assemblage (with three component facies, representing braided river and overbank environments); (2) an estuarine assemblage (with three component facies, representing tidal flat and mud-dominated estuarine environments); (3) a siliciclastic shoreline assemblage (with six component facies, representing greywacke pebble beach, shoreface and inner shelf environments); and (4) a carbonate shelf assemblage (with four component facies, representing tide-dominated, inshore and shallow marine environments). Fine grained intervals of cyclothems were deposited during sea level highstands when the Tangoio area was generally experiencing mid-shelf sedimentation. This produced an offshore assemblage consisting of four component facies. The distribution of facies assemblages during relative sea level lowstands was dependent upon proximity to the shoreline, the type and rate of sediment supply to the basin, and shelf hydrodynamics. Carbonate shelf facies dominate coarse grained intervals in Cyclothems 3–5, but siliciclastic shoreline and non-marine facies dominate in Cyclothems 1 and 2. The abrupt change from siliciclastic to carbonate sedimentation during relative sea level lowstand deposition is thought to have been induced by rapidly falling interglacial to glacial sea level accentuated by regional tectonic shoaling. This caused most of the terrigenous sediment supply to bypass the Tangoio area. Consequently, carbonate sediment accumulated in inshore and shallow marine settings. Facies assemblages rarely show lateral interdigitation, but are vertically stratified over the entire Tangoio block. Facies successions in each cyclothem preserve a record of relative sea level change during deposition of the Petane Group and are consistent with a Plio-Pleistocene sea level change in eastern New Zealand of c. 75–150 m, i.e. approximately the magnitude suggested for Late Quaternary glacio-eustatic sea level changes.     

青藏高原陆相火山岩区填图新进展——以松多地区新生代火山机构为例

20世纪90年代以来,为了区别传统的沉积岩区填图方法,中国陆相火山岩区地质调查工作普遍采用"火山构造-火山岩相-火山岩性"三位一体的思路与工作方法,并取得重要进展。以西藏松多地区1∶5万区域地质调查工作为例,探讨该方法在高原地区新生代火山岩研究中的应用。结合遥感影像与剖面测制,通过野外地质观察与镜下岩性特征分析,对火山机构进行相带划分,从而恢复古火山的基本格架、重溯火山作用过程。同时,松多地区新生代火山机构的建立,为冈底斯岩浆带发育的林子宗火山岩与下伏地层的区域性不整合提供了新的证据,进一步限定了印度-亚洲大陆碰撞的起始时间。     

Sedimentary signatures of cyclic growth and destruction of stratovolcanoes: A case study from Mt. Taranaki, New Zealand

The long-term behaviour of andesite stratovolcanoes is characterised by a repetition of edifice growth phases followed by collapse. This cyclic pattern represents a natural frequency at varying timescales in the growth dynamics of stratovolcanoes worldwide. Around the > 130 ka Mt. Taranaki (Egmont volcano), New Zealand, coastal–cliff successions at 20–40 km distance comprise repeating packages of lithologically and sedimentologically distinctive mass-flow deposits. Varying depositional mechanisms and source properties of these units record growth and collapse cycles of the central edifice. These are used to construct a model for cyclic volcaniclastic sedimentation in the surrounds of stratovolcanoes. During edifice-construction phases, thick packages of tabular, predominantly monolithologic, hyperconcentrated-flow and debris-flow deposits accumulate with intercalated tephra beds. The mass-flow units commonly contain large proportions of fresh pumice or juvenile-lithic andesite. Intervals of quiescence separating eruptive periods are characterised by landscape re-adjustment, accompanied by deposition of fluvial and aeolian sediments, along with steady accretion of medial ash. In contrast, brief episodes of destruction are marked by wide-spread, distinctively clay-rich, polylithologic debris-avalanche deposits and related marginal debris flow units. The growth stages can be terminated by an eruption-triggered sector collapse, or by external forces once the edifice exceeds a critical stable height or profile (dependent on eruptive style and local geo-tectonic conditions). Once the edifice becomes metastable, regional tectonic earthquakes or shallow-level intrusion events are likely triggers for collapse. Although the resulting debris avalanches represent the greatest individual hazard from such andesite stratovolcanoes, their frequency is relatively low compared with other types of mass-flows generated during edifice-growth phases. Accurate forecasts of future hazard from mass-flow events are therefore dependent on recognition of both the frequency of a stratovolcano's growth cycle and its current position in that cycle.     

Extraction of crystal-poor rhyolite from a hornblende-bearing intermediate mush: a case study of the caldera-forming Matahina eruption,Okataina volcanic complex

The Matahina Ignimbrite (~160 km³ rhyolite magma, 330 ka) was deposited during a caldera-forming eruption from the Okataina Volcanic Centre, Taupo Volcanic Zone (TVZ), New Zealand. Juvenile clasts are divided into three groups: Group (1) the dominant crystal-poor rhyolite type, Group (2) a minor coarse-grained, mingled/mixed intermediate type, and Group (3) a rare fine-grained basalt. The ignimbrite consists of the Group 1 type and is divided into three members: a lower and middle member, which is high-silica, crystal-poor (<10 vol.%) rhyolite, and the upper member, which is low-silica and slightly more crystal-rich (up to 21 vol.%). Cognate, crystal-rich (up to 50 vol.%) basalt to intermediate pumice occurs on top of lag breccias and within lithic-rich pyroclastic density current deposits along the caldera margin (Groups 2 and 3). Several lines of evidence indicate that the intermediate clasts represent the cumulate complement to the melt-rich rhyolite: (1) continuity in the compositions of plagioclase, orthopyroxene, hornblende, and oxides and normal zoning of individual phenocrysts; (2) the silicic glass from the intermediate magma (interstitial melt) overlaps compositionally with the bulk rock rhyolite and glass; (3) high Zr and a slight positive Eu anomaly in the intermediate magma relative to quenched enclaves from other intermediate TVZ eruptions indicates zircon and plagioclase accumulation, respectively; (4) an increase in the Cl contents in glass from the least evolved to most evolved is consistent with the concentration of volatiles during magma evolution. Most of the compositional variations in the low- to high-silica rhyolites can be accounted for by continued Rayleigh fractionation (up to 15%), following melt extraction from the underlying mush, under varying fO₂–fH₂O conditions to form a slightly compositionally zoned rhyolitic cap. This link to the varying fO₂–fH₂O conditions is evidenced by the strong correlation between key geochemical parameters (e.g. Dy, Y), that qualitatively reflect fH₂O conditions (presence or absence of hornblende/biotite), and fO₂ estimated from Fe–Ti oxide equilibrium. Magma mingling/mixing between the basalt–andesite and the main slightly compositionally zoned rhyolitic magma occurred during caldera-collapse, modifying the least-evolved rhyolite at the lower portion of the reservoir and effectively destroying any pre-eruptive gradients.     

Settlement chronology on river terrace landforms: A New Zealand case study

Since the first occupation of New Zealand by Polynesians 1000 years B.P., there have been three major phases of sedimentation in river valleys. These occurred in broad periods of 700 to 600 years B.P., 450 to 300 years B.P., and from 1880 to the present. This offers a useful opportunity to develop a field procedure for rapidly setting maximum ages for pre-European settlements on river terraces. Radiocarbon dates confirm the value of the procedure. Fortified settlements on alluvium in the New Zealand North Island East Coast area date to the period after about 450 years B.P., in a chronological pattern similar to that elsewhere in New Zealand. the generalized phases of terrace age are not always easily applied to particular field situations and the real advantages of the method lie in the provision of approximate dates for surface surveys of settlement pattern.     

Influences of place characteristics on hazards, perception and response: a case study of the hazardscape of the Wellington Region, New Zealand

The biophysical characteristics of a place not only bring variations in natural hazards, but also influence people??s associated perception and response to the hazard. Although these influences are noted in the literature, their relationship has been less explored for planning hazard mitigation and disaster response. This paper evaluates the role of place in a hazardscape by using a case study of the Wellington Region, New Zealand. The study explores the differences between the physical and perceived susceptibility to natural hazards and how this affects people??s response to a hazard. The analysis is based on a questionnaire survey and interviews conducted with local people. It finds that disparities between physical and perceived hazard susceptibility engender different motivations and types of response. A close alignment of the two produces a high response rate for earthquakes and droughts, whereas a significant divergence leads to a poor response as observed for volcanic ash fall. The relationship, however, is not linear, as indicated by the poor response even to such well-perceived hazards as tsunami and bushfire. The reasons behind this uneven response can be related back to place characteristics, such as the nature of hazard susceptibility, as well as factors such as fatalism or blasé effect. It is concluded that mapping physical and perceived susceptibility to hazards over space, understanding their relationship and ultimately narrowing the gap between perception and reality can contribute to effective hazard management at a place.     

大陆碰撞过程的火山岩响应：以西藏林周林子宗火山岩为例

印度-亚洲大陆碰撞伴生有大量火山活动,其中,林子宗火山岩发育最广,遍布碰撞带北侧的冈底斯带,形成长逾1200 km的火山岩带。林周地区作为林子宗火山岩的命名地,该套火山岩发育相对齐全,为安山岩、流纹岩及相应的火山碎屑岩夹沉积碎屑岩组合,顶部发育巨厚流纹质凝灰岩,可以划分出三个火山旋回,其生成时代介于63.89~48.73 Ma。岩石学和地球化学资料显示,林子宗火山岩自下而上SiO₂和K₂O含量以及Al₂O₃饱和度增加,其岩浆从早到晚由中性、中钾和准铝质变化到酸性、高钾和过铝质,晚期喷发巨厚的火山灰流,反映区域地壳明显的加厚,由早期的30~40 km变化到晚期的50~60 km。火山岩相对富集Cs、Rb、K、U,亏损Ta、Nb、Ti、Sr、Ba、P,早期与桑日组安山岩地球化学特征相近,而中—晚期与乌郁、扎嘎等地渐新世高钾火山岩相似,表明早期岩浆具有新特提斯洋俯冲板片印迹,而中—晚期具有后碰撞作用特点。林子宗火山岩作为印度-亚洲大陆碰撞过程的响应,记录着古新世至始新世（64~48 Ma）印度-亚洲大陆之间的碰撞向碰撞后演化过程。     

Coupled extrusion of sub‐arc lithospheric mantle and lower crust during orogen collapse: a case study from Fiordland,New Zealand

The Anita Peridotite is a ~20 km long by 1 km wide exhumed fragment of spinel facies sub‐arc lithospheric mantle that is enclosed entirely within the ≤4 km wide ductile Anita Shear Zone, and bounded by quartzofeldspathic lower crustal gneisses in Fiordland, south‐western New Zealand. Deformation textures, grain growth calculations and thermodynamic modelling results indicate the mylonitic peridotite fabric formed during rapid cooling, and therefore likely during extrusion. However, insights into the exhumation process are gained through examination of aluminous garnet‐bearing meta‐sedimentary gneisses also enclosed within the shear zone. P–T calculations indicate that prior to mylonitization the gneisses enclosing the peridotite equilibrated at 675–746 °C in the sillimanite stability field (stage I), before being buried to near the base of thickened arc crust (stage II; ~686 ± 26 °C and 10.7 ± 0.8 kbar). From this point on, the peridotite unit and the quartzofeldspathic rocks share a deformation history involving extensive recrystallization (stage III) within the Anita Shear Zone. Coupled exhumation of these portions of lower crust and upper mantle occurred during regional thinning of over‐thickened lithosphere at c. 104 Ma (U–Pb zircon). Our favoured model for the exhumation process involves heterogeneous transpressive deformation within the translithospheric Anita Shear Zone, which provided a conduit for ductile extrusion through the crust.