The concentration of the KCl solution whose conductivity is that of standard seawater (35 ‰) at 15°C

The concentration of the potassium chloride solution (KCI) which has the same conductivity as15degC at P79 standard seawater corrected to35.0000permilhas been evaluated. The variation of the conductivity ratio of KCI solutions to standard seawater (35permil) has been measured between 14.8 and15.2degC for KCI solutions whose concentration varies from 32 to 33 g.kg^-1.     

The effect of concentration and temperature on the conductivity ratio of potassium chloride solutions to standard seawater of salinity 35 ‰(Cl 19.3740 ‰)

The ratiosZ_{K,t}of electrical conductivities of potassium chloride (KCI) solutions of known concentration (K) to standard seawater at the same temperature have been measured at15degC and24degC for solutions withZ_{k,15}between 0.96 and 1.04. The "normal" concentration (N or K_{N}) givingZ_{N,15}= 1was found to beK_{N} = 32.4356gKCI/kg solution. The effect of temperature onZ_{N,t}was measured over the range15degC to30degC. Equations are given for KCI concentration as a function ofZ_{15}and the inverse function, forZ_{15}/Z_{24}as a function ofZ_{24}(to allow use of a laboratory salinometer for the KCI-seawater comparisons), andZ_{N,t}as a function of temperature.     

The electrical conductivity of weight diluted and concentrated standard seawater as a function of salinity and temperature

The ratiosR_{s,t,o}of electrical conductivity of seawater samples of precisely known salinity to standard seawater at the same temperature have been measured over a wide range of salinities from 0 to42permilS and over the full range of oceanic temperatures from -2 to35degC. The samples withS<35permilwere prepared by accurate weight dilution of standard seawater with distilled water. High salinity samples were prepared by fast evaporation of standard seawater and subsequent weight dilution into the already determined <35permilrange. An equation was derived which expresses the S versusR_{s,t,o}relationship very precisely from1-42permiland at all temperatures, i.e.,S = f_{1}(R_{s,t,o}) + f_{2}(R_{s, t,o},t) =Sigma_{n=0}^{5} a_{n}R^{n/2}+ frac{Delta t}{1+kDelta t} Sigma_{n=0}^{5} b_{n}R^{n/2}whereDelta t = t-15degC,R = R_{s, t.o}; only the first termf_{1}is required at15degC. The effeet of temperature on the electrical conductivity of standard seawater was also measured. The ratior_{t}of the conductivity at temperaturetto the conductivity at15degC (C_{35,t, o}/C_{35,15,o}) is very aeenrately expressed by a fourth degree equation int. i.e,r_{t}=Sigma_{n=0}^{4} c_{n}t^{n}These two equations are sufficient for all salinity determinations at normal atmospheric pressure.     

Conductivity/salinity/temperature relationship of diluted and concentrated standard seawater

The conductivity ratio of diluted and concentrated standard seawater has been measured very accurately in a salinity range from 0 to42permiland at temperature from -1 to30degC. All the data have been fitted into polynomials which are compared with previous data. The specific conductance of seawater is deduced and a polynomial for the full range of salinity and temperature is proposed. Data presented in this paper have been used, with those of Dauphinee presented in this issue, to elaborate the new "Practical Salinity Scale 1978."     

The practical salinity scale 1978 and its antecedents

The history of the definition of salinity and the methods of computing It are traced from the beginning of the twentieth century until the present. Difficulties that have arisen in existing practices are discussed, in particular, the situation regarding reduction of in-situ CTD observations. The Practical Salinity Scale 1978 is an attempt to remove the shortcomings; it has been recommended for international acceptance. The basis for this new scale is an equation relating the ratio of the electrical conductivity of the seawater sample to that of a standard potassium chloride solution (KCI) at15degC atmospheric pressure. The samples used were prepared from standard seawater diluted with distilled water or evaporated by weight. Finally, the set of new equations for CTD data reduction is given, based upon the work of authors whose papers are appearing elsewhere in this volume.     

A low-power hypsometer-type barometer for remote weather stations

The paper describes a low-power barometer intended for remote weather stations, but also meeting the requirements for manned stations and airports, in which the condensation temperature of carbon disulphide (CS2) is used to determine the barometric pressure(p). A heated cylindrical bulb with a re-entrant well for a thermistor through the bottom and an internal radiation shield is 1/3 filled with CS2. Helical springs assist CS2migration on wetted surfaces and allow liquid and vapor to pass one another in the small diameter exit-condenser tube. A miniature Dewar flask gives thermal insulation and a 0.01-mm beryllium-copper diaphragm transmits the external pressure. The condensation temperature is read with a simple Wheatstone bridge and dc amplifier giving an outputV_{0} = 0.5(p- 100 Pa)V. Pulsed power with the pulse length controlled by a second thermistor on the outlet tube is used for efficiency. Long term tests of a number of barometers have given power levels around 40 mW at20degC and indicated maximum drifts ofpm50Pa/year,pml0Pa/day, andpm2Pa short term.     

The Practical Salinity Scale 1978: Fitting the data

Three equations have been fitted to new data relating the electrical conductivity of seawater to the Practical Salinity Scale 1978. These equations have been designed for the reduction of in-situ measurements of temperature, pressure, and conductivity from anywhere in the world oceans. The standard deviation of the fit is roughly equivalent topm0.0015permilin salinity depending on the pressure at which the data is taken and, as such is commensurate with the best accuracy attainable with modern instruments.     

Aircraft measurement of sea surface temperature during the West Coast Experiment

During the West Coast Experiment in March 1977, a test was conducted to ascertain the effectiveness of using remote sensing techniques to estimate sea surface temperature (SST) from infrared (IR) emissions of the sea surface. Aircraft flights were made over three buoys moored in southern California coastal waters, and data was collected of sea surface emissions at thermal IR wavelengths (7.95-13.5 mum). SST obtained from the remote sensing measurements were compared with in situ SST measured with thermistors mounted on the buoys. The remotely determined SST were from1.4-2.9degC lower than the in situ measurements. Several factors are discussed that could account for the differences.     

Deep ocean temperature profile measurements

Temperature is one of the most frequently measured parameters of the ocean because of its importance to the understanding and prediction of oceanic and meteorological events, and also because the measurement is required for the determination of salinity and density. The ocean temperature range is narrow,-2degto35degC, but measurement is complicated by the harsh ocean environment, the necessity of remote hands off readings, power limitations due to the cable, and the fast response required to obtain a profile in a reasonable length of time. Platinum and copper thermometers are used for most precision measurements with thermistors or thermocouples used in some cases to improve speed of response and for lesser accuracy. A number of very different circuits have been used successfully in salinity, temperature, and depth profiling systems and achieve millidegree accuracies in laboratory measurements. However, very careful precautions and many checks are required to achieve that accuracy in the field, and to achieve the correlation of conductivity, pressure, and temperature readings required for equivalent accuracy in the salinity and density measurements.     

Four years of low-altitude sea ice broad-band backscatter measurements

The ability to use radar to discriminate Arctic Sea ice types has been investigated using surface-based and helicopter-borne scatterometer systems. The surface-based FM/CW radar operated at 1.5 GHz and at multiple frequencies in the 8-18-GHz region. Measurements were made at angles of10degto70degfrom nadir. The helicopter-based radar operated at the 8-18-GHz frequencies with incidence angles of0degto60deg. Extensive surface-truth measurements were made at or near the time of backscattar measurement to describe the physical and electrical properties of the polar scene. Measurements in the 8-18-GHz region verify the ability to discriminate multiyear, thick first-year, thin first-year, and pressure-ridged sea ice and lake ice. The lowest frequency, 9 GHz, was found to provide the greatest contrast between these ice categories, with significant levels of separation existing between angles from15degto70deg. The radar cross sections for like antenna polarizations, VV and HH, were very similar in absolute level and angular response. Cross-polarization, VH and HV, provided the greatest contrast between ice types, The 1.5-GHz measurements showed that thick first-year, thin first-year, and multiyear sea ice cannot be distinguished at10degto60degincidence angles with like polarization, VV, by backscatter alone; but that undeformed sea ice can be discriminated from pressure-ridged ice and lake ice. The effect of snow cover on the backscatter from thick first-year ice was also investigated. It contributes on the order of 0 to 4 dB, depending on frequency and incidence angle; the contribution of the snow layer increased with increasing frequency. Snow cover on smooth lake ice was found to be a major backscatter mechanism. Summer measurements demonstrate the inability to extend the knowledge of the backscatter from sea ice under spring conditions to all seasons.     

A versatile sonar system for ocean research and fisheries applications

An echo sounder has been developed with features ideally suited to oceanographic and fisheries research. Instruments commonly used for such research are inaccurate, limited in dynamic range, unstable, and generally inflexible. An effort has been made to overcome these deficiencies with the sonar system discussed here. The echo sounder to be described has a time-varied-gain receiver (20 log_{10} Ror40 log_{10} R + 2alphaR) accurate to withinpm0.5dB over a 100-dB range. The equivalent dynamic range is 140 dB (the ratio of the maximum signal at minimum gain to the equivalent input noise at maximum gain in a 4-kHz bandwidth). The temperature stability ispm0.5dB from10degto35degC at any range. Operating parameters, including frequency, can be easily altered to accommodate a variety of needs.     

A thermometer for oceanographic research with a time constant of about 1 ms and a resolution of less than 0.001 K: Its properties and results of its application on cruises

The author has developed a new thermometer with a time constant of about 0.5 ms as a part of his two-phase alternating current bridge. The thermometer permits the application of a Pt-wire with a low resistance of about 10-50 mOmega. A resolution of less than 0.001 K in the range of40degC can be reached. Properties, experiments, and results from measurements with this fast thermometer are described.     

Effect of a snow cover on microwave backscatter from sea ice

The effect of a snow cover on sea ice upon radar backscatter at microwave frequencies (X- andKu-baud) can be important. The effect of scattering from the snow cover on thesigmadegof first-year ice is shown to be severe (5 cm of dry snow can raisesigmadegby 8 dB at 9 GHz), while that onsigmadegof multiyear ice is shown to be smaller. The low thermal conductivity of snow compared to that of sea ice effectively raises the temperature of the upper surface of the ice, resulting in higher dielectric constants for the ice, thereby modifying the backscatter both from the ice surface and from the scattering volume. The temperature effect of a 10-cm snow cover on 3-m-thick multiyear ice is to lower thesigmadegby only about 0.3 dB for air temperature of-20degC. The effect on 1-m-thick first-year ice is even less. Hence, the volume-scattering effect of snow is more important than the temperature effect. The presence of a wet snow cover can block the volume-scattering contribution of the multiyear ice. The effect of wet snow cover on first-year ice should be smaller than that Of dry, snow, becausesigmadegof wet snow is lower than that of dry snow.     

In situ vane system for seafloor strength investigations

The In Situ Vane (ISV) system has been developed to determine the strength profile within the upper 1.5 m of deep sea clays. The system is designed to operate in 6000-m water depth after one-year dormancy on the bottom and consists of four integrated packages; controller and data acquisition system, mechanical system, volume compensator, and power supply. This paper describes development of a prototype which was used under a pressure of 550 bars after a 30-day dormancy and of the full system which was successfully used in a deep water (5800 m) test. In the first full application of the system the ISV will be used to measure changes in sediment strength caused by high temperature (300degC) as part of the U.S. Subseabed Disposal Program.     

SZC15-4型多参数剖面仪设计

CTD是测量海水温度、电导率和压力的仪器,在海洋科学考察、海洋资源调查开发、海洋环境监测预报和海洋军事研究中应用广泛。SZC15-4型多参数CTD是国产SZC15系列CTD最新型号,用于测量海水的温度、电导率、深度和叶绿素浓度,适用于近岸海洋调查。文中介绍了SZC15-4型多参数CTD剖面仪的性能、工作原理、系统组成和工作流程。并通过海上试验,与SBE19CTD在相同环境条件、相同采样速率下作比测,通过对实验数据做相关运算得出SZC15-4型CTD与SBE19在温度、盐度相关性优于0.999 9,表明两种仪器具有很高的相关特性。     

Aircraft measurements of the microwave scattering signature of the ocean

Microwave scattering signatures of the ocean have been measured over a range of surface wind speeds from 3 m/s to 23.6 m/s using the AAFE RADSCAT scatterometer in an aircraft. Normalized scattering coefficients are presented for vertical and horizontal polarizations as a function of incidence angle (nadir to55deg) and radar azimuth angle (0degto360deg) relative to surface wind direction. For a given radar polarization, incidence angle, and azimuth angle relative to the wind direction, these scattering data exhibit a power law dependence on surface wind speed. The relation of the scattering coefficient to azimuth angle obtained during aircraft circles (antenna conical scans) is anisotropic and suggests that microwave scatterometers can be used to infer both wind speed and direction. These results have been used for the design of the Seasat-A Satellite Scatterometer (SASS) to be flown in 1978 on this first NASA oceanographic satellite.     

铜在牙鲆(Paralichthys olivaceus)组织蓄积、分配及排放的研究

采用暴露实验方法 ,研究了海水中Cu在牙鲆 (Paralichthysolivaceus)内脏、肌肉、鳃组织内吸收、积累和排放规律 ,海水中总有机碳 (TOC)浓度、配体种类对铜吸收的影响及其与海水表观络合容量 (ACuCC)的关系。结果表明 ,Cu浓度为 0 .5mg/L时 ,各组织内Cu蓄积量随暴露时间增加而增大 ,第 1 3天均达吸收平衡 ,此时Cu蓄积量 (mg/kg)为内脏 971 .89>肌肉 2 0 4 .99>鳃 90 .0 4。染毒 1 3天牙鲆在清洁海水中排放结果表明 :随排放时间增加各组织Cu蓄积量下降 ,第 8天接近排放平衡。此时各组织Cu排出率为 :肌肉 89% >鳃 86.5 % >内脏团 83.7%。海水中TOC浓度、种类对牙鲆Cu蓄积有明显影响 ,当TOC浓度相同时 ,孔石莼分泌物比牙鲆分泌物更能降低Cu在牙鲆组织内吸收和蓄积量 ;当TOC种类相同时 ,随TOC浓度升高 ,各组织铜蓄积量均明显下降 ,表明海水TOC能降低牙鲆组织对Cu的吸收和积累。ACuCC随TOC浓度增加有明显上升趋势 ,并与TOC浓度呈线性相关。     

盐度定义狭义性与广义性

通过理论分析和实验验证,论述了“实用盐标”、“氯度盐标”定义的狭义性及应用范围,指出电导法和氯度法测定保守性质样品,数据正确;而测定非保守性质样品,测定值偏离绝对盐度S_a.笔者建议的“密度盐标”属于广义性质,可广泛应用于保守和非保守性质样品.密度盐标具有的优点是:(1)不受样品组成变化影响,只与溶液质量和浮力有关,测定值有高度可靠性与重现性;(2)测定大洋水盐度与现有实用盐度值相同,测定工业水盐度较实用盐度、氯度盐度值更接近绝对盐度S_a;(3)在已知溶质情况下,应用溶液膨胀系数和物质偏摩尔体积校正系数可统一溶质浓度与盐度的换算关系.     

Narrow and broad senses on salinity scale

ＩＮＴＲＯＤＵＣＴＩＯＮＢｅｃａｕｓｅｓａｌｉｎｉｔｙｉｓａｎｅｓｓｅｎｔｉａｌｆａｃｔｏｒｉｎｏｃｅａｎｏｇｒａｐｈｉｃｓｔｕｄｉｅｓ ,ａｎｄａｎｉｍｐｏｒｔａｎｔｐａｒａｍｅｔｅｒｉｎｓａｌｔｃｈｅｍｉｃａｌｉｎｄｕｓｔｒｉｅｓａｎｄｍａｒｉｃｕｌｔｕｒｅａｓｗｅｌｌａｓｅｃｏｓｙｓｔｅｍ ,ｔｈｅｓａｌｉｎｉｔｙｄｅｆｉｎｉｔｉｏｎａｎｄｉｔｓｍｅａｓｕｒｅｍｅｎｔａｒｅｂｅｉｎｇｃｏｎｔｉｎｕｏｕｓｌｙｓｔｕｄｉｅｄ .Ｒｅｓｅａｒｃｈｅｒｓｈａｖｅｂｅｅｎｃｏｎｓｔａｎｔｌｙｗｏｒｋｉｎｇ…     

辽东半岛大孤山古溺谷平原沉积环境的复原——基于岩心黏土混浊水电导率和pH值以及硅藻组合

对位于辽东半岛大孤山北侧砬底村沟谷中的钻孔岩心作黏土混浊水电导率、硅藻分析和pH值测定。结果显示黏土混浊水电导率曲线和咸水种硅藻含量曲线大体一致,表明黏土混浊水电导率和硅藻分析具有良好的一致性,可以相互印证。据硅藻组合、土导电率值和pH值的结果,将LD孔岩心从下到上分为4个沉积环境带:Ⅰ带为全新世海侵期的溺谷环境;Ⅱ带海水影响逐渐减弱的潮间带环境;Ⅲ带的泥炭环境分为Ⅲ-1带的受外洋海水影响的盐性沼泽湿地环境和Ⅲ-2带为积水的淡水湖沼环境;Ⅳ带分为两个亚带,Ⅳ-1带为有一定水深的陆相沼泽湿地环境,Ⅳ-2带为受海水影响的陆相沼泽湿地环境。另外黏土混浊水电导率与pH值也呈良好的反相关对应关系,这表明pH值也可以成为恢复古环境的一个重要的辅助指标。