Screening and ranking framework for geologic CO<Subscript>2</Subscript> storage site selection on the basis of health,safety, and environmental risk

A screening and ranking framework (SRF) has been developed to evaluate potential geologic carbon dioxide (CO₂) storage sites on the basis of health, safety, and environmental (HSE) risk arising from CO₂ leakage. The approach is based on the assumption that CO₂ leakage risk is dependent on three basic characteristics of a geologic CO₂ storage site: (1) the potential for primary containment by the target formation; (2) the potential for secondary containment if the primary formation leaks; and (3) the potential for attenuation and dispersion of leaking CO₂ if the primary formation leaks and secondary containment fails. The framework is implemented in a spreadsheet in which users enter numerical scores representing expert opinions or published information along with estimates of uncertainty. Applications to three sites in California demonstrate the approach. Refinements and extensions are possible through the use of more detailed data or model results in place of property proxies.     

Numerical modeling assessment of three-gate structures for capturing contaminated groundwater

This modeling study evaluated the capability of alternative funnel-and-gate structures with three gates for capturing contaminated groundwater in a hypothetical unconfined aquifer. Simulated interceptor structures were linear and 45 m wide, consisting of three gates and two funnels (walls). One gate occupied the center and two gates occupied the ends of the interceptor structures. The structures, positioned perpendicular to regional groundwater flow, traversed the entire thickness of the aquifer. A total of four structures were evaluated (numbers designate widths of end, center, and end gates, respectively, in meters): 3-3-3, 2-5-2, 1-7-1, and 4-1-4. Particle tracking and zonal water budgets identified shapes of capture zones and discharge patterns for each interceptor structure. A mass transport model, accounting for advection and hydrodynamic dispersion, tested the capability of each structure for capturing a contaminant plume. Results suggest that: time-dependent capture zones underestimate the amount of time to capture a contaminant plume, wide center gates facilitate plume capture, and wide end gates facilitate lateral containment of contaminants. Of the structures simulated, the 2-5-2 configuration was relatively efficient at processing and containing the simulated contaminant plume.     

A simple approach to evaluating leakage through thin impervious element of high embankment dams

Internal erosion is the most common reason which induces failure of embankment dams besides overtopping. Relatively large leakage is frequently concentrated at defects of impervious element, and this will lead to eventual failure. The amount of leakage depends not only on integrity of impervious element, but also on dam height, shape of valley, shape of impervious element and water level in reservoir. The integrity of impervious element, which represents the relative level of seepage safety, is not easy to be determined quantitatively. A simple method for generalization of steady seepage state of embankment dams with thin impervious element is proposed in this paper. The apparent overall value of permeability coefficient for impervious element can be obtained by this method with reasonable accuracy and efficiency. A defect parameter of impervious element is defined as an index to characterize seepage safety of embankment dams. It equals the ratio of the apparent overall value of permeability coefficient to the measured value in laboratory for intact materials. Subsequently, seepage safety of three dams is evaluated and the evolution of defect level of impervious element of dams is investigated. It is proved that the newly proposed method in this paper is feasible in the evaluation of relative seepage safety level of embankment dams with thin impervious element.     

Finite element evaluation of diffusion and dispersion tensors in periodic porous media with advection

This paper presents three-dimensional finite element simulations to evaluate diffusion and dispersion tensors in periodic porous media in the presence of an advective velocity field. These tensors are evaluated in the framework of the double-scale expansion technique. Two problems, a Newtonian flow and a vector-valued advection–diffusion equation, have to be sequentially solved at the pore scale. Finite element techniques to approximate these problems are proposed and analyzed. Numerical results in three-dimensional networks of spheres are presented to quantitatively assess the impact of the pore morphology and of the advection velocity on the diffusion and dispersion tensors.     

基于混合物理论的水力-化学-力学污染物输运模型研究

由于废弃物的堆积以及填埋场上覆盖层的重量,衬垫因此承受一定的压力,发生力学固结;由于黏土本身的结构特性,当污染物通过黏土垫层时可能会发生化学固结,而固结作用可直接对污染物的对流输运产生影响,也会引起土层体积和结构的变化,从而改变其固有的输运性质。从混合物理论出发,建立了水力-化学-力学作用下的溶质输运理论框架,统一地描述了水力-化学-力学作用下变形、水的吸附或解吸附、对流和扩散现象。将输运系数考虑为有效孔隙率的函数,由此反映固结对输运参数的影响。对所建立的数学模型进行无量纲化处理,并使用有限元软件COMSOL Multiphysics进行求解,最后进行了参数分析。研究结果表明,垫层土体中吸附水和自由水之间的化学势差异越大,层间吸附水的解吸附量越大;当土体的软硬性质不同时,当层间吸附水解吸附后,土体固结程度不同,从而对污染物输运过程的影响不同。而当垫层上覆荷载增大时,土体宏观孔隙的扩张的限制作用增强,从而对土体产生一种修复作用,抑制污染物在土体中的输运。     

An experimental study on diffusion characteristics of hardened liner materials to inorganic chemicals

For materials of very low hydraulic conductivity used in the landfill liner systems, e.g., natural clay liners, soil-cement liners, etc., diffusion characteristics should be evaluated, as the transport mechanism of contaminant through them is diffusion controlled. Studies on the diffusion characteristics of the hardened liner materials, such as the soil cement, are relatively few compared with those of clayey soils. In this paper, diffusive characteristics of hardened liner materials (HLMs) applied to the liner system of Sudokwon Metropolitan Landfill in Korea, were studied. Laboratory pure diffusion column tests in the pure- and the advection-diffusion status were performed for the chemicals, NaCl, KCl, and CaCl₂. To evaluate the diffusion coefficient of a HLMs system, a one-dimensional numerical transport program was developed for use in a multi-layered HLMs system. The range of dispersion coefficients of advection diffusion column tests was a little narrower than that of diffusion coefficients of pure diffusion tests, although the two coefficients were quite close. The effective diffusion coefficients of chloride ions of a HLMs were about a half of those in clayey soil due to the high density by compaction and curing. Diffusion coefficients of chloride ions in this study were correlated closely with hydraulic conductivities of the materials tested and were consistent with work in the literature.     

An original semi‐discrete approach to assess gas conductivity of concrete structures

For civil engineering structures with a tightness role, structural permeability is a key issue. In this context, this paper presents a new proposition of a numerical modelling of leakage rate through a cracked concrete structure undergoing mode I cracking. The mechanical state of the material, considered in the framework of continuum mechanics based on finite element modelling, is described by means of the stress‐based nonlocal damage model which takes into account the stress state and provides realistic local mechanical fields. A semi‐discrete method based on the strong discontinuity approach to estimate crack opening is then considered in the post‐treatment phase. Using a Poiseuille's like relation, the coupling between the mechanical state of the material and its dry gas conductivity is performed. For validation purposes, an original experimental campaign is conducted on a dry concrete disc loaded in a splitting setup. During the loading, gas conductivity and digital image correlation analysis are performed. The comparison with the 3D experimental mechanical global response highlights the performance of the mechanical model. The comparison between crack openings measured by digital image correlation and estimated by the strong discontinuity method shows a good agreement. Finally, the results of the semi‐discrete approach coupled with the gas conductivity compared with experimental data show a good estimation of the structural conductivity. Consequently, if the mechanical problem is well modelled at the global scale, then the proposed approach provides good estimation of gas conductivity. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

解析法与数值法在水电站防渗墙效果评价中的运用

四川省大渡河上某水电站目前正处于施工阶段,大坝基坑防渗墙已基本完成施工,但基坑涌水量较大,为评价防渗墙的防渗效果,在两防渗墙间开展了2组抽水试验.根据研究区边界条件,利用综合井函数法初步求取了基坑砂砾层的水文地质参数,并在此基础上采用数值法(groundwater modeling system, GMS)建立水流模型,进行参数的识别、验证,研究表明综合井函数法得到的砂砾含水层渗透系数为19.13~32.24 m/d,GMS拟合得到的渗透系数为26.00 m/d.此外,数值模拟拟合得到的主、副防渗墙渗透系数较小(0.01~0.02 m/d),说明两防渗墙防渗效果较好.      

氯离子在黏土-膨润土屏障中迁移的离心试验研究

将对流-扩散试验装置置于土工离心机中,以50g离心加速度运行12 h,研究了黏土-膨润土混合土样中Cl-的迁移扩散,使用解析解对试验结果进行拟合确定相关参数,分析了试验的相似条件,使用商用软件对离心试验原型进行模拟,与试验结果进行比较,探讨了离心机用于溶质迁移分析的比尺效应,最后通过数值分析研究了试验的黏土-膨润土屏障用于老垃圾填埋场防渗帷幕补强的效果。结果表明,土工离心机试验中,按实际出流量计算的实际孔隙水流速小于临界流速,两试样中的佩克莱数（Pe数）小于临界Pe数,机械弥散的作用可以忽略,试验满足扩散的相似定律;离心机试验所模拟的2.5 m厚衬垫原型,在水头5 m和10 m作用下3.42 a后均未被击穿;常重力下试验土样的渗透系数为8.5×10-8 cm/s,有效扩散系数为7.82×10-7 cm2/s,对试验原型进行的数值模拟表明,n倍重力加速度下,土工离心机可以 尺寸的试样实现对原型的模拟,同时将对流和扩散作用下的溶质迁移时间缩短至原型的 ;试验的黏土-膨润土屏障用于老垃圾填埋场防渗补强,可显著减缓溶质迁移,防渗补强后可满足渗滤液迁移扩散的控制要求。     

Analytical solution of advection–diffusion equation in heterogeneous infinite medium using Green’s function method

Some analytical solutions of one-dimensional advection–diffusion equation (ADE) with variable dispersion coefficient and velocity are obtained using Green’s function method (GFM). The variability attributes to the heterogeneity of hydro-geological media like river bed or aquifer in more general ways than that in the previous works. Dispersion coefficient is considered temporally dependent, while velocity is considered spatially and temporally dependent. The spatial dependence is considered to be linear and temporal dependence is considered to be of linear, exponential and asymptotic. The spatio-temporal dependence of velocity is considered in three ways. Results of previous works are also derived validating the results of the present work. To use GFM, a moving coordinate transformation is developed through which this ADE is reduced into a form, whose analytical solution is already known. Analytical solutions are obtained for the pollutant’s mass dispersion from an instantaneous point source as well as from a continuous point source in a heterogeneous medium. The effect of such dependence on the mass transport is explained through the illustrations of the analytical solutions.     

Improved computation of non-linear advection in porous media using slightly modified basic finite element algorithms

The numerical stability of standard finite element schemes applied to the advection–diffusion equation is evaluated using a space-time eigenvalue analysis. Unlike the usual approaches which only consider temporal aspects of stability, this analysis also describes the spatial stability of the solutions. To this end, the one-dimensional advection–diffusion equation is put into an alternative semi-discrete form which allows the derivation of a very practical stability condition. In multidimensional flow situations the latter is applied along the streamlines by means of a tensorial corrective function that prevents excessive numerical smearing of fronts or phase interfaces. The efficiency of the procedure is illustrated by an example which successfully simulates the coupling of two low miscible fluid phases in a variably saturated porous medium.     

The hydraulic conductivity of the fractures intersecting Cambrian sandstone rock masses, central Jordan

This paper outlines the hydraulic characteristics of fractured rock masses and their implication in engineering works. The hydraulic behavior of subsurface fracture systems has been evaluated by means of hydraulic testing using packer tests and by fracture analysis. A comparison of the borehole results with those of surface fracture mapping provides a reasonable correlation between the two methods of measuring fractured rock hydraulic conductivity. The mean hydraulic conductivity value obtained from the boreholes is 36.5 LU (9.26᎒^-5 m/s), while the mean value of hydraulic conductivity obtained from field mapping of fracture data is in the order of 1᎒^-5 m/s. Based on the hydraulic conductivity values the sandstone rock mass can be considered medium to highly conductive; nevertheless, it seems to be almost impervious at greater depth. The empirical relationships which have been derived between hydraulic conductivity and both rock quality designation (RQD) and rock mass rating (RMR) indices indicated that the mean value of hydraulic conductivity of the rock mass could be estimated to be in the order of 10^-5 m/s, which is confirmed by the packer tests.     

Hydro-mechanical evaluation of soil stabilized with cement-kiln dust in arid lands

This study evaluates the potential use of cement-kiln dust (CKD), a waste product from the cement industry, for enhancing the mechanical as well as the hydraulic properties of soils in arid lands. Stabilized products will play a major role in reducing slope failures, pavement damage and the design of containment barriers for hazardous waste in arid lands. Various tests to determine the different physical properties of the stabilized matrix were conducted and the optimum mixture that produces maximum internal energy and minimum hydraulic conductivity was selected. The effect of soaking and unsoaking of the treated specimens on the mechanical properties was also evaluated. The effect of metal ion concentration and conjugate anions on the resultant hydraulic conductivity was evaluated. The optimum percentage of CKD was calculated by using stress-strain data, Newton's divided difference and Simpson's integration technique. The analyses have shown that 6% by weight of CKD is the optimum mix design, which increases the shear strength and decreases the hydraulic conductivity to less than 10^-9 m/s. Therefore, the treated soil could be used as a soil-based barrier layer for containment of hazardous waste.     

Comparison Between Analytical and Numerical Methods in Evaluating the Pollution Transport in Porous Media

Contaminant transport modelling in environmental engineering is generally conducted to evaluate the potential impact of contaminant migration on the subsurface environment or for interpreting tracer tests or groundwater quality data. In the past few decades a number of mathematical models have been established for evaluating the migration of pollution as indicated in the literature. This paper presents a comparison between a number of analytical and numerical models in evaluating pollution transport in soils. Three analytical models and a finite element model developed in this research are used for comparing four numerical examples under different conditions. Four cases of advection dominated problem with line source boundary, advection dominated problem with semi-line source boundary, advection–dispersion–sorption problem with line source boundary and advection–dispersion–sorption problem with semi-line source are considered. Based on the results the best analytical model that has a higher accuracy is recommended for practical applications.     

Containment landfills: the myth of sustainability

A number of major problems associated with the containment approach to landfill management are highlighted. The fundamental flaw in the strategy is that dry entombment of waste inhibits its degradation, so prolonging the activity of the waste and delaying, possibly for several decades, its stabilisation to an inert state. This, coupled with uncertainties as to the long-term durability of synthetic lining systems, increases the potential, for liner failure at some stage in the future whilst the waste is still active, leading to groundwater pollution by landfill leachate. Clay liners also pose problems as the smectite components of bentonite liners are subject to chemical interaction with landfill leachate, leading to a reduction in their swelling capacity and increase in hydraulic conductivity. Thus, their ability to perform a containment role diminishes with time. More critically, if diffusion rather than advection is the dominant contaminant migration mechanism, then no liner will be completely impermeable to pollutants and the containment strategy becomes untenable.

There are other less obvious problems with the containment strategy. One is the tendency to place total reliance on artificial lining systems and pay little attention to local geological/hydrogeological conditions during selection of landfill sites. Based on the attitude that any site can be engineered for landfilling and that complete protection of groundwater can be effected by lining systems, negative geological characteristics of sites are being ignored. Furthermore, excessive costs in construction and operation of containment landfills necessitate that they are large scale operations (superdumps), with associated transfer facilities and transport costs, all of which add to overall waste management costs. Taken together with unpredictable post-closure maintenance and monitoring costs, possibly over several decades, the economics of the containment strategy becomes unsustainable. Such a high-cost, high-technology approach to landfill leachate management is generally beyond the financial and technological resources of the less wealthy nations, and places severe burdens on their economies. For instance, in third world countries with limited water resources, the need to preserve groundwater quality is paramount, so expensive containment strategies are adopted in the belief that they offer greatest protection to groundwater. A final indictment of the containment strategy is that in delaying degradation of waste, the present generations waste problems will be left for future generations to deal with.

More cost-effective landfill management strategies take advantage of the natural hydrogeological characteristics and attenuation properties of the subsurface. The ‘dilute and disperse’ strategy employs the natural sorption and ion exchange properties of clay minerals, and it has been shown that in appropriate situations it is effective in attenuating landfill leachate and preventing pollution of water resources. Operated at sites with thick clay overburden sequences, using a permeable cap to maximise rainfall infiltration and a leachate collection system to control leachate migration, ‘dilute and disperse’ is a viable leachate management strategy. Hydraulic traps are relatively common hydrogeological situations where groundwater flow is towards the landfill, so effectively suppressing outwards advective flow of leachate. This approach is also best employed with a clay liner, taking advantage of the attenuation properties of clays to combat diffusive flow of contaminants. These strategies are likely to guarantee greater protection of groundwater in the long term.     

Potential Application of Lateritic Soil Stabilized with Cement Kiln Dust (CKD) as Liner in Waste Containment Structures

This study evaluates the applicability of residually derived lateritic soil stabilized with cement kiln dust (CKD), a waste product from the cement manufacturing process as liner in waste repositories. Lateritic soil sample mixed with 0–16 % CKD (by dry weight of the soil) was compacted with the British Standard Light, West African Standard and British Standard Heavy compaction efforts at water contents ranging from the dry to wet of optimum moistures. Geotechnical parameters such as Atterberg limits, compaction characteristics, hydraulic conductivity, unconfined compressive strength and volumetric shrinkage strain were determined. Results indicate that the plasticity index, the maximum dry unit weight and hydraulic conductivity together with the volumetric shrinkage decreased with increased amount of CKD while the optimum moisture content and unconfined compressive strength increased with higher CKD content for all the efforts. When measured properties were compared with standard specifications adopted by most environmental regulatory agencies for the construction of barrier systems in waste containment structures, the resulting values showed substantial compliance. Besides developing an economically sustainable liner material, the present study demonstrated effective utilization of an industrial by-product otherwise considered as waste by the producers, in addition to a systematic expansion in the use of the lateritic soil for geotechnical works.     

Extraction constraints and environmental significance of brine discharges in the Asu River watershed,Southeastern Nigeria

Analyses of hydrochemistry, modes of occurrence and dynamic dispersion of brine discharges were used to assess the economic potentials, environmental and geotechnical problems of saline water discharges in the Abakaliki Basin. Total salt concentration, energy input requirement and the nature of containment structures are important considerations in selection of appropriate and sustainable sourcing and processing system. Solute dispersion patterns from the brine discharges are controlled by the semi-regional hydrodynamic regime that is defined by the shallow, unconfined, fractured aquifer system. The ionic solute invasion from brines not only contribute to marginal wetland degradation, ground and surface water contamination but also predicate low performance and failures in water abstraction and supply systems through encrustation and corrosion. Brine harvest for industrial and domestic applications appears to be a major remedy to inhibit the environmental and geotechnical impacts of the brine discharges.     

复杂地层低密度钻井液研究与应用

针对资源开发过程中复杂地层钻探易发生压裂性漏失的问题,优选出适当类型的空心玻璃微珠,对空心玻璃微珠性能进行评价,并从分散稳定性、密度、流变性和滤失性等方面测试其对钻井液性能的影响。通过实验进一步优化得到一种以空心玻璃微珠为减轻剂的低密度钻井液体系,该钻井液具有良好的流变性和滤失性能,分散稳定性极佳。将研发的低密度钻井液体系应用于若尔盖矿区2K12-钻孔,结果表明其适用性良好,有效防止了复杂地层漏失问题的发生。      

Flow and transport through clay membrane barriers

Flux equations for liquid and solute migration through clay barriers that behave as semi-permeable membranes used in waste containment and remediation applications, known as clay membrane barriers (CMBs), are discussed. The results of a simplified analysis of flow through a geosynthetic clay liner (GCL) using measured values for the chemico-osmotic efficiency coefficient (ω) of the GCL indicate a total liquid flux that counters the outward Darcy (hydraulic) flux due to chemico-osmosis associated with clay membrane behavior of the GCL. Also, the solute (contaminant) flux through the GCL is reduced relative to the solute flux that would occur in the absence of membrane behavior due to chemico-osmotic counter advection and solute restriction. Since diffusion commonly controls solute transport through GCLs and other low-permeability clay barriers, the implicit (empirical) correlation between ω and the effective salt-diffusion coefficient of the migrating contaminant is an important consideration with respect to contaminant restriction in CMBs.