Simulation of annual biogeochemical cycles of nutrient balance, phytoplankton bloom(s), and DO in Puget Sound using an unstructured grid model

Nutrient pollution from rivers, nonpoint source runoff, and nearly 100 wastewater discharges is a potential threat to the ecological health of Puget Sound with evidence of hypoxia in some basins. However, the relative contributions of loads entering Puget Sound from natural and anthropogenic sources, and the effects of exchange flow from the Pacific Ocean are not well understood. Development of a quantitative model of Puget Sound is thus presented to help improve our understanding of the annual biogeochemical cycles in this system using the unstructured grid Finite-Volume Coastal Ocean Model framework and the Integrated Compartment Model (CE-QUAL-ICM) water quality kinetics. Results based on 2006 data show that phytoplankton growth and die-off, succession between two species of algae, nutrient dynamics, and dissolved oxygen in Puget Sound are strongly tied to seasonal variation of temperature, solar radiation, and the annual exchange and flushing induced by upwelled Pacific Ocean waters. Concentrations in the mixed outflow surface layer occupying approximately 5–20?m of the upper water column show strong effects of eutrophication from natural and anthropogenic sources, spring and summer algae blooms, accompanied by depleted nutrients but high dissolved oxygen levels. The bottom layer reflects dissolved oxygen and nutrient concentrations of upwelled Pacific Ocean water modulated by mixing with biologically active surface outflow in the Strait of Juan de Fuca prior to entering Puget Sound over the Admiralty Inlet. The effect of reflux mixing at the Admiralty Inlet sill resulting in lower nutrient and higher dissolved oxygen levels in bottom waters of Puget Sound than the incoming upwelled Pacific Ocean water is reproduced. By late winter, with the reduction in algal activity, water column constituents of interest, were renewed and the system appeared to reset with cooler temperature, higher nutrient, and higher dissolved oxygen waters from the Pacific Ocean.     

Multi-scale modeling of Puget Sound using an unstructured-grid coastal ocean model: from tide flats to estuaries and coastal waters

Water circulation in Puget Sound, a large complex estuary system in the Pacific Northwest coastal ocean of the United States, is governed by multiple spatially and temporally varying forcings from tides, atmosphere (wind, heating/cooling, precipitation/evaporation, pressure), and river inflows. In addition, the hydrodynamic response is affected strongly by geomorphic features, such as fjord-like bathymetry and complex shoreline features, resulting in many distinguishing characteristics in its main and sub-basins. To better understand the details of circulation features in Puget Sound and to assist with proposed nearshore restoration actions for improving water quality and the ecological health of Puget Sound, a high-resolution (around 50 m in estuaries and tide flats) hydrodynamic model for the entire Puget Sound was needed. Here, a three-dimensional circulation model of Puget Sound using an unstructured-grid finite volume coastal ocean model is presented. The model was constructed with sufficient resolution in the nearshore region to address the complex coastline, multi-tidal channels, and tide flats. Model open boundaries were extended to the entrance of the Strait of Juan de Fuca and the northern end of the Strait of Georgia to account for the influences of ocean water intrusion from the Strait of Juan de Fuca and the Fraser River plume from the Strait of Georgia, respectively. Comparisons of model results, observed data, and associated error statistics for tidal elevation, velocity, temperature, and salinity indicate that the model is capable of simulating the general circulation patterns on the scale of a large estuarine system as well as detailed hydrodynamics in the nearshore tide flats. Tidal characteristics, temperature/salinity stratification, mean circulation, and river plumes in estuaries with tide flats are discussed.     

Tidal residual eddies and their effect on water exchange in Puget Sound

Tidal residual eddies are one of the important hydrodynamic features in tidally dominant estuaries and coastal bays, and they could have significant effects on water exchange in a tidal system. This paper presents a modeling study of tides and tidal residual eddies in Puget Sound, a tidally dominant fjord-like estuary in the Pacific Northwest coast, using a three-dimensional finite-volume coastal ocean model. Mechanisms of vorticity generation and asymmetric distribution patterns around an island/headland were analyzed using the dynamic vorticity transfer approach and numerical experiments. Model results of Puget Sound show that a number of large twin tidal residual eddies exist in the Admiralty Inlet because of the presence of major headlands in the inlet. Simulated residual vorticities near the major headlands indicate that the clockwise tidal residual eddy (negative vorticity) is generally stronger than the anticlockwise eddy (positive vorticity) because of the effect of Coriolis force. The effect of tidal residual eddies on water exchange in Puget Sound and its subbasins was evaluated by simulations of dye transport. It was found that the strong transverse variability of residual currents in the Admiralty Inlet results in a dominant seaward transport along the eastern shore and a dominant landward transport along the western shore of the inlet. A similar transport pattern in Hood Canal is caused by the presence of tidal residual eddies near the entrance of the canal. Model results show that tidal residual currents in Whidbey Basin are small in comparison to other subbasins. A large clockwise residual circulation is formed around Vashon Island near entrance of South Sound, which can potentially constrain the water exchange between the Central Basin and South Sound.     

Internal Variability Of The North Atlantic Wind-Driven Ocean Circulation

A new approach to understand the physical processes that govern internal variability of the large scale North Atlantic ocean circulation is outlined and current methods and results are reviewed. In this approach, based on the theory of dynamical systems, internal variability is viewed as arising through successive transitions when parameters are changed. The potential of the approach is demonstrated through analysesof solutions of intermediate complexity models of the wind-driven ocean circulation in the North Atlantic. In a quasi-geostrophic modelfor the flow in a rectangular basin with idealized wind forcing, the basic transitions are already found and physical mechanisms at work can be described in detail. Qualitatively, this transition behavior remains robust in more realistic models, having shallow water dynamics, realistic wind forcingand continental geometry, although patterns and time scales changethrough the model hierarchy. The relevance of the results is discussed inrelation to those of observations and of ocean general circulation models.     

Sill effects on physical dynamics in eastern Long Island Sound

This study investigates how Mattituck Sill influences circulation patterns and physical dynamics in eastern Long Island Sound, a major estuary on the U.S. east coast. Observations show there is pronounced across-estuary transport in the area and suggest there may be subtidal anticyclonic flow around the sill. Model runs, with and without sill bathymetry, exhibit this across-estuary transport and anticyclonic circulation. Comparison between these runs indicates that the sill intensifies the anticyclonic circulation. This study finds the sill does not exert internal hydraulic control during neap, mean, or spring tidal conditions. Nevertheless, along-estuary exchange is reduced over the sill and across-estuary fluxes are increased. The Connecticut River plume enters close to the estuary mouth. The sill deflects more of the plume waters towards the mouth, causing less freshwater to take the long looping route through the estuary. The subtidal circulation balance around the sill indicates a barotropic balance between the tidal advection of tidal vorticity and friction. The subtidal vorticity balance indicates the net effect of tidal advection of relative vorticity is balanced with frictional curl associated with lateral speed gradients and vorticity dissipation. Previously developed scalings based on the circulation balance (Nature 290:549–555, 1981), frictional vorticity generation mechanisms (Deep-Sea Res 28:195–212, 1981), and tidal diffusion of potential vorticity (J Phys Oceanogr 29:821–827, 1999) are applicable to Mattituck Sill and predict circulation with a similar magnitudes to model results.     

The response of circulation and salinity in a micro-tidal estuary to sub-tidal oscillations in coastal sea surface elevation

Conceptual models of circulation theorise that the dominant forces controlling estuarine circulation are freshwater discharge from the riverine section (landward), tidal forcing from the ocean boundary, and gravitational circulation resulting from along-estuary gradients in density. In micro-tidal estuaries, sub-tidal water level changes (classified as those with periods between 3 and 10 days) with amplitudes comparable to the spring tidal range can significantly influence the circulation and distribution of water properties. Field measurements obtained from the Swan River Estuary, a diurnal, micro-tidal estuary in south-western Australia, indicated that sub-tidal water level changes at the ocean boundary were predominantly from remotely forced continental shelf waves (CSWs). The sub-tidal water levels had maximum amplitudes of 0.8 m, were comparable to the maximum tidal range of 0.6 m, propagated into the estuary to its tidal limit, and modified water levels in the whole estuary over several days. These oscillations dominated the circulation and distribution of water properties in the estuary through changing the salt wedge location and increasing the bottom water salinity by 7 units over 3 days. The observed salt wedge excursion forced by CSW was up to 5 km, whereas the maximum tidal excursion was 1.2 km. The response of the residual currents and the salinity distribution lagged behind the water level changes by ∼24 h. It was proposed that the sub-tidal forcing at the ocean boundary, which changed the circulation, salinity, and dissolved oxygen in the upper estuary, was due to a combination of two processes: (1) a gravity current generated by a process similar to a lock exchange mechanism and (2) amplified along-estuary density gradients in the upper estuary, which enhanced the gravitational circulation in the estuary. The salt intrusions under the sub-tidal forcing caused the rapid movement of anoxic water upstream, with significant implications for water quality and estuarine health.     

Tidal mixing in sill regions: influence of sill depth and aspect ratio

A non-hydrostatic model in cross-sectional form with an idealized sill is used to examine the influence of sill depth (h _s) and aspect ratio upon internal motion. The model is forced with a barotropic tide and internal waves and mixing occurs at the sill. Calculations using a wide sill and quantifying the response using power spectra show that for a given tidal forcing namely Froude number F _r as the sill depth (h _s) increases the lee wave response and vertical mixing decrease. This is because of a reduction in across sill velocity U _s due to increased depth. Calculations show that the sill Froude number F _s based on sill depth and across sill velocity is one parameter that controls the response at the sill. At low F _s (namely F _s ≪ 1) in the wide sill case, there is little lee wave production, and the response is in terms of internal tides. At high F _s, calculations with a narrow sill show that for a given F _s value, the lee wave response and internal mixing increase with increasing aspect ratio. Calculations using a narrow sill with constant U _s show that for small values of h _s, a near surface mixed layer can occur on the downstream side of the sill. For large values of h _s, a thick well-mixed bottom boundary layer occurs due to turbulence produced by the lee waves at the seabed. For intermediate values of h _s, “internal mixing” dominates the solution and controls across thermocline mixing.     

Low-frequency variability of a semi-closed sea induced by the circulation in an adjacent ocean in a wind-driven,quasi-geostrophic,eddy-resolving simulation

The wind-driven circulation in the northwestern Pacific and the South China Sea (SCS) is simplified as a two-layer, quasi-geostrophic model in two rectangular basins connected by an idealized strait. This model is used to investigate the impact of the western boundary current (WBC) on the adjacent marginal sea. The variability of the circulation in the two basins is investigated with a high resolution and at low viscosity, which allows the numerical solution to resolve mesoscale eddy forcing. The model ocean is driven by the time-independent asymmetric wind stress acting on the idealized Pacific (large basin) only. Under the reference parameters used in this study, the WBC can intrude into the idealized SCS (small basin) in the form of a loop current, shedding eddies regularly. The rate of eddy shedding is nearly constant throughout the entire integration time of the model; however, the intensity of the eddy-shedding exhibits multiple timescale variability ranging from quasi-biennial to decadal timescale. A set of sensitivity experiments demonstrate that our results are robust against changes to model parameters and geometry. Multivariate spectral analysis is used to extract the spatiotemporal feature of the variability. Joint analysis for the two basins shows that the circulation in the idealized SCS is significantly impacted by the variability at decadal (15-year), interannual (5–7-year and quasi-biennial), and quasi-annual timescales. The spatial structures of the modes of variablility suggest that the variance in position of the WBC, combined with mesoscale activity, act to influence the low-frequency modes of the idealized SCS. The structural differences between the modes strongly impacting the idealized SCS and those having weak influence are also presented.     

Dissolved trace metals in the surface waters of Puget Sound

Employing clean and quantitative techniques, a marine monitoring programme succeeded in detecting large surface elevations in the concentrations of dissolved Cu, Zn and Pb in the marine surface waters of Puget Sound adjacent to Seattle and Tacoma, Washington. Physical mixing with cleaner waters was the controlling factor in reducing the dissolved concentrations of Cu downstream of these contaminated regions. Comparisons between Puget Sound waters and coastal waters adjacent to Puget Sound suggest that a portion of this Cu, Zn and Pb pollution is being advected out of Puget Sound. The low Ni and Cd concentrations found in this study indicate that these trace metals are not a significant pollution problem in the main basin of Puget Sound.     

On the importance of non-hydrostatic processes in determining tidally induced mixing in sill regions

The importance of using a non-hydrostatic model to compute tidally induced mixing and flow in the region of a sill is examined using idealized topography representing the sill at the entrance to Loch Etive. This site is chosen since detailed measurements were recently made there. Calculations are performed with and without the inclusion of non-hydrostatic dynamics using a vertical slice model for a range of sill widths corresponding to typical sill regions. Initial non-hydrostatic calculations showed that the model could reproduce the observed flow characteristics in the region. However, when calculations were performed using the model in hydrostatic form, the significant artificial convective mixing that occurred in order to remove density inversions led to excessively high vertical mixing. This influenced the computed temperature field and the intensity of the current jet that separated from the sill on its lee side. In addition it affected the magnitude and spatial characteristics of the lee waves generated on the lee side of the sill. Calculations with a range of sill widths, showed that as the sill width decreased the difference between the solution computed with the non-hydrostatic and hydrostatic model increased.     

Climate and land cover effects on the temperature of Puget Sound streams

We apply an integrated hydrology‐stream temperature modeling system, DHSVM‐RBM, to examine the response of the temperature of the major streams draining to Puget Sound to land cover and climate change. We first show that the model construct is able to reconstruct observed historic streamflow and stream temperature variations at a range of time scales. We then explore the relative effect of projected future climate and land cover change, including riparian vegetation, on streamflow and stream temperature. Streamflow in summer is likely to decrease as the climate warms especially in snowmelt‐dominated and transient river basins despite increased streamflow in their lower reaches associated with urbanization. Changes in streamflow also result from changes in land cover, and changes in stream shading result from changes in riparian vegetation, both of which influence stream temperature. However, we find that the effect of riparian vegetation changes on stream temperature is much greater than land cover change over the entire basin especially during summer low flow periods. Furthermore, while future projected precipitation change will have relatively modest effects on stream temperature, projected future air temperature increases will result in substantial increases in stream temperature especially in summer. These summer stream temperature increases will be associated both with increasing air temperature, and projected decreases in low flows. We find that restoration of riparian vegetation could mitigate much of the projected summer stream temperature increases. We also explore the contribution of riverine thermal loadings to the heat balance of Puget Sound, and find that the riverine contribution is greatest in winter, when streams account for up to 1/8 of total thermal inputs (averaged from December through February), with larger effects in some sub‐basins. We project that the riverine impact on thermal inputs to Puget Sound will become greater with both urbanization and climate change in winter but become smaller in summer due to climate change. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Dynamics of the circulation in the Sea of Marmara: numerical modeling experiments and observations from the Turkish straits system experiment

During September 2008 and February 2009, the NR/V Alliance extensively sampled the waters of the Sea of Marmara within the framework of the Turkish Straits System (TSS) experiment coordinated by the NATO Undersea Research Centre. The observational effort provided an opportunity to set up realistic numerical experiments for modeling the observed variability of the Marmara Sea upper layer circulation at mesoscale resolution over the entire basin during the trial period, complementing relevant features and forcing factors revealed by numerical model results with information acquired from in situ and remote sensing datasets. Numerical model solutions from realistic runs using the Regional Ocean Modeling System (ROMS) produce a general circulation in the Sea of Marmara that is consistent with previous knowledge of the circulation drawn from past hydrographic measurements, with a westward meandering current associated with a recurrent large anticyclone. Additional idealized numerical experiments illuminate the role various dynamics play in determining the Sea of Marmara circulation and pycnocline structure. Both the wind curl and the strait flows are found to strongly influence the strength and location of the main mesoscale features. Large displacements of the pycnocline depth were observed during the sea trials. These displacements can be interpreted as storm-driven upwelling/downwelling dynamics associated with northeasterly winds; however, lateral advection associated with flow from the Straits also played a role in some displacements.     

Influence of open boundary conditions and sill height upon seiche motion in a gulf

A cross-sectional model of an idealised constant depth gulf with a sill at its entrance, connected to a deep ocean, is used to examine the barotropic and baroclinic response of the region to wind forcing. The role of the oceanic boundary condition is also considered. Calculations show that in the case of a tall sill, where the pycnocline intersects the sill, the baroclinic response of the gulf is similar to that of a lake, and internal waves cannot radiate energy out of the gulf. The barotropic response shows free surface oscillations, with nodes located close to the centre of the oceanic basin and entrance to the gulf, with associated barotropic resonant periods. As the sill height is reduced, baroclinic wave energy is radiated from the gulf into the ocean, and the form of the baroclinic response changes from a standing wave (tall sill) as in a lake to a progressive wave (no sill). The location of sea surface elevation nodes and resonant periods changes as the sill height is reduced. Calculations of the barotropic resonant periods with and without stratification could not determine if they were influenced by the presence of stratification, although published analytical theory suggests that they should be able to when energy is lost from the gulf by internal wave radiation. This inability to detect changes in barotropic resonant period due to stratification effects is due to the small change in resonant frequency produced by baroclinic effects, as shown by analytical results, and the broad peak nature of the computed resonant frequency. In the case of a closed offshore boundary (an offshore island), there is a stronger and narrower energy peak at the resonant frequency than when a barotropic radiation condition is applied. However, the influence of stratification upon the resonant frequency could not be accurately determined. Although the offshore boundary was well removed from the gulf to such an extent that any baroclinic waves reflected from it could not reach the gulf within the integration period, it did, however, slightly influence the gulf baroclinic response due to its influence on the barotropic response.     

On the generation and propagation of internal solitary waves in the southern Andaman Sea: A numerical study

Numerous internal solitary waves(ISWs) have been observed in the southern Andaman Sea. In this study, the two-dimensional Massachusetts Institute of Technology general circulation model is applied to investigate the dynamics of ISWs and explore the effects of the bottom topography and tidal forcing on the generation and propagation of ISWs in the southern Andaman Sea. The results show that the large-amplitude depression ISWs are mainly generated via the oscillating tidal flow over the sill of the Great Channel, and the generation of ISWs is subject to the lee wave regime. The Dreadnought Bank cannot generate ISWs itself; however, it can enhance the amplitudes of eastward-propagating ISWs generated from sill A, owing to constructive interference of internal tide generation between the sill of the Great Channel and the Dreadnought Bank. The eastward-propagating ISWs generated by the eastern shallow sill near the continental shelf can propagate to the shelf, where they evolve into elevation waves because of the shallow water. Sensitivity runs show that both the semidiurnal and diurnal tides over the sill of the Great Channel can generate ISWs in this area. However, the ISWs generated by diurnal tides are much weaker than those generated by semidiurnal tides. Mixed tidal forcing has no significant effect on the generation of ISWs.     

Differential presence of anthropogenic compounds dissolved in the marine waters of Puget Sound, WA and Barkley Sound, BC

Organic compounds were evaluated in March 2010 at 22 stations in Barkley Sound, Vancouver Island Canada and at 66 locations in Puget Sound. Of 37 compounds, 15 were xenobiotics, 8 were determined to have an anthropogenic imprint over natural sources, and 13 were presumed to be of natural or mixed origin. The three most frequently detected compounds were salicyclic acid, vanillin and thymol. The three most abundant compounds were diethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP), ethyl vanillin and benzaldehyde (∼600 ng L⁻¹ on average). Concentrations of xenobiotics were 10-100 times higher in Puget Sound relative to Barkley Sound. Three compound couplets are used to illustrate the influence of human activity on marine waters; vanillin and ethyl vanillin, salicylic acid and acetylsalicylic acid, and cinnamaldehyde and cinnamic acid. Ratios indicate that anthropogenic activities are the predominant source of these chemicals in Puget Sound.     

Cascading ocean basins: numerical simulations of the circulation and interbasin exchange in the Azov-Black-Marmara-Mediterranean Seas system

In this paper, we use the unstructured grid model SCHISM to simulate the thermohydrodynamics in a chain of baroclinic, interconnected basins. The model shows a good skill in simulating the horizontal circulation and vertical profiles of temperature, salinity, and currents. The magnitude and phases of the seasonal changes of circulation are consistent with earlier observations. Among the mesoscale and subbasin-scale circulation features that are realistically simulated are the anticyclonic coastal eddies, the Sebastopol and Batumi eddies, the Marmara Sea outflow around the southern coast of the Limnos Island, and the pathway of the cold water originating from the shelf. The superiority of the simulations compared to earlier numerical studies is demonstrated with the example of model capabilities to resolve the strait dynamics, gravity currents originating from the straits, high-salinity bottom layer on the shallow shelf, as well as the multiple intrusions from the Bosporus Strait down to 700 m depth. The warm temperature intrusions from the strait produce the warm water mass in the intermediate layers of the Black Sea. One novel result is that the seasonal intensification of circulation affects the interbasin exchange, thus allowing us to formulate the concept of circulation-controlled interbasin exchange. To the best of our knowledge, the present numerical simulations, for the first time, suggest that the sea level in the interior part of the Black Sea can be lower than the sea level in the Marmara Sea and even in some parts of the Aegean Sea. The comparison with observations shows that the timings and magnitude of exchange flows are also realistically simulated, along with the blocking events. The short-term variability of the strait transports is largely controlled by the anomalies of wind. The simulations demonstrate the crucial role of the narrow and shallow strait of Bosporus in separating the two pairs of basins: Aegean-Marmara Seas from one side and Azov-Black Seas from the other side. The straits of Kerch and Dardanelles provide sufficient interbasin connectivity that prevents large phase lags of the sea levels in the neighboring basins. The two-layer flows in the three straits considered here show different dependencies upon the net transport, and the spatial variability of this dependence is also quite pronounced. We show that the blocking of the surface flow can occur at different net transports, thus casting doubt on a previous approach of using simple relationships to prescribe (steady) outflow and inflow. Specific attention is paid to the role of synoptic atmospheric forcing for the basin-wide circulation and redistribution of mass in the Black Sea. An important controlling process is the propagation of coastal waves. One major conclusion from this research is that modeling the individual basins separately could result in large inaccuracies because of the critical importance of the cascading character of these interconnected basins.     

Multiple time-scale modelling of the circulation in Torres Strait—Australia

Ocean circulation influences nearly all aspects of the marine ecosystem. This study describes the water circulation patterns on time scales from hours to years across Torres Strait and adjacent gulfs and seas, including the north of the Great Barrier Reef. The tridimensional circulation model incorporated realistic atmospheric and oceanographic forcing, including winds, waves, tides, and large-scale regional circulation taken from global model outputs. Simulations covered a hindcast period of 8 years (i.e. 01/03/1997–31/12/2004), allowing the tidal, seasonal, and interannual flow characteristics to be investigated. Results indicated that the most energetic current patterns in Torres Strait were strongly dominated by the barotropic tide and its spring-neap cycle. However, longer-term flow through the strait was mainly controlled by prevailing winds. A dominant westward drift developed in summer over the southeasterly trade winds season, which then weakened and reversed in winter over the northwesterly monsoon winds season. The seasonal flow through Torres Strait was strongly connected to the circulation in the north of the Great Barrier Reef, but showed little connectivity with the coastal circulation in the Gulf of Papua. Interannual variability in Torres Strait was highest during the monsoon period, reflecting variability in wind forcing including the timing of the monsoon. The characteristics of the circulation were also discussed in relation to fine sediment transport. Turbidity level in Torres Strait is expected to peak at the end of the monsoon, while it is likely to be at a low at the end of the trade season, eventually leading to a critically low bottom light level which constitutes a severe risk of seagrass dieback.     

Baroclinic dynamics of wind-driven circulation in a stratified bay: A numerical study using models of varying complexity

The baroclinic response of a stratified coastal embayment (Lunenburg Bay of Nova Scotia) to the observed wind forcing is examined using two numerical models. A linear baroclinic model based on the normal mode approach shows skill at reproducing the observed isotherm movements and sub-surface currents during a time of strong stratification in the bay. The linear model also shows that the isotherm movement in Lunenburg Bay is influenced by the wind forcing and propagation of baroclinic Kelvin waves from neighbouring Mahone Bay. The effects of nonlinearity and topography are investigated using a three-dimensional nonlinear coastal circulation model. The nonlinear model results demonstrate that the nonlinear advection terms generate a gyre circulation at the entrance of Lunenburg Bay, and the slope bottom topography at the mouth of the bay strengthens the sub-surface time-mean inflow on the southern side of the bay. A comparison of model-calculated currents in different numerical experiments clearly shows that baroclinicity plays a dominant role in the dynamics of wind-driven circulation in Lunenburg Bay.     

Interactions between wind and tidally induced currents in coastal and shelf basins

This paper addresses the impact of atmospheric variability on ocean circulation in tidal and non-tidal basins. The data are generated by an unstructured-grid numerical model resolving the dynamics in the coastal area, as well as in the straits connecting the North Sea and Baltic Sea. The model response to atmospheric forcing in different frequency intervals is quantified. The results demonstrate that the effects of the two mechanical drivers, tides and wind, are not additive, yet non-linear interactions play an important role. There is a tendency for tidally and wind-driven circulations to be coupled, in particular in the coastal areas and straits. High-frequency atmospheric variability tends to amplify the mean circulation and modify the exchange between the North and the Baltic Sea. The ocean response to different frequency ranges in the wind forcing is area-selective depending on specific local dynamics. The work done by wind on the oceanic circulation depends strongly upon whether the regional circulation is tidally or predominantly wind-driven. It has been demonstrated that the atmospheric variability affects the spring-neap variability very strongly.     

Effect of water depth and the bottom boundary layer upon internal wave generation over abrupt topography

The role of water depth and bottom boundary layer turbulence upon lee-wave generation in sill regions is examined. Their effect upon vertical mixing is also considered. Calculations are performed using a non-hydrostatic model in cross-section form with a specified tidal forcing. Initial calculations in deeper water and a sill height such that the sill top is well removed from the surrounding bed region showed that downstream lee-wave generation and associated mixing increased as bottom friction coefficient k increased. This was associated with an increase in current shear across the sill. However, for a given k, increasing vertical eddy viscosity A _v reduced vertical shear in the across sill velocity, leading to a reduction in lee-wave amplitude and associated mixing. Subsequent calculations using shallower water showed that for a given k and A _v, lee-wave generation was reduced due to the shallower water depth and changes in the bottom boundary layer. However, in this case (unlike in the deepwater case), there is an appreciable bottom current. This gives rise to bottom mixing which in shallow water extends to mid-depth and enhances the mid-water mixing that is found on the lee side of the sill. Final calculations with deeper water but small sill height showed that lee waves could propagate over the sill, thereby reducing their contribution to mixing. In this case, bottom mixing was the major source of mixing which was mainly confined to the near bed region, with little mid-water mixing.