Occurrence of hypogenic caves in a karst region: Examples from central Italy

The caves of the Umbria and Marche regions in central Italy are made up of three-dimensional maze systems that display different general morphologies due to the various geological and structural contexts. At the same time, the internal morphologies of the passages, galleries, and shafts present some similarity, with solutional galleries characterized by cupolas and blind pits, anastamotic passages, roof pendants, and phreatic passages situated at different levels. Some of these caves are still active, as is the case for Frassassi Gorge, Parrano Gorge, and Acquasanta Terme, with galleries that reach the phreatic zone, where there is a rising of highly mineralized water, rich in hydrosulfydric acid, and with erosion of limestone walls and the formation of gypsum. Elsewhere there are fossil caves, such as Monte Cucco and Pozzi della Piana, where large speleothems of gypsum are present 500 m or more above the regional water table. In all of these important karst systems it is possible to recognize basal input points through fracture and intergranular porosity networks at the base of the oxidizing zone in the core of the anticline, where mineralized water rises up from the Triassic evaporitic layers in small hydrogeological circuits. Different underground morphologies can derive from the presence of a water table related to an external stream or from the confined setting of the carbonate rocks, underlying low permeable sedimentary cover, where artesian conditions can occur.     

The role of karst in the genesis of sulfur deposits, Pre-Carpathian region, Ukraine

 Most of exogeneous epigenetic sulfur deposits are clearly associated with intensely karstified carbonate and sulfate rocks. This paper demonstrates, using the Pre-Carpathian region as an example, that karstification is one of the most important processes controlling the formation of sulfur deposits. This is determined by a coincidence of some major prerequisites of these two processes. In the Podol'sky and Bukovinsky regions the Miocene aquifer system is well drained by erosion valleys; the giant network caves known here in gypsum formed under past artesian conditions. In the region of sulfur deposits, associated with the same karstified gypsum strata, true artesian conditions still prevail. Hydrogeologic data show that abundant cavities detected in the vicinity of sulfur deposits can be interpreted as having the same origin as the fossil caves of the Podol'sky and Bukovinsky regions. The current widespread belief that the gypsum/anhydrite stratum in the region is aquifuge separating the Miocene aguifers is inadequate. This belief caused much controversy with regard to the genetic interpretations of sulfur deposits in the region. Caves formed by the upward water flow through the gypsum/anhydrite stratum govern the water exchange between the aquifers within the aquifer system. A new karst model for the formation of sulfur deposits is suggested. It agrees well with the hydrogeological features of the Miocene sequence and with biogeochemical mechanisms of sulfur origin in low-temperature diagenetic environments. Received: 16 February 1995 · Accepted: 4 June 1996     

Karst breakdown mechanisms from observations in the gypsum caves of the Western Ukraine: implications for subsidence hazard assessment

The term karst breakdown is employed in this paper to denote the totality of processes and phenomena of gravitational and/or hydrodynamic destruction of the ceiling of a karst cavity and of the overlying sediments. It refers not only to the existence of a surface subsidence (collapse) feature but, first of all, to the internal (hidden in the subsurface) structures that precede development of a surface form. This study reports and discusses the results of direct mapping and examination of breakdown structures in the gypsum karst of the Western Ukraine, at the level of their origin, i.e., in caves. The accessibility of numerous laterally extensive maze cave systems in the region provided an excellent opportunity for such an approach, which made it possible to examine the relationship between breakdown structures and particular morphogenetic or geological features in caves, and to reveal stages of breakdown development. It is found that breakdown is initiated mainly at specific speleogenetically or geologically weakened localities, which classify into a few distinct types. The majority of breakdowns, which are potent to propagate through the overburden, relate with the outlet cupolas/domepits that represent places where water had discharged out of a cave to the upper aquifer during the period of transverse artesian speleogenesis. Distribution of breakdown structures does not correlate particularly well with the size of the master passages. Several distinct mechanisms of breakdown development are revealed, and most of them proceed in several stages. They are guided by speleogenetic, geological and hydrogeological factors. The study confirms that a speleogenetic approach is indispensable to the understanding of breakdown pre-requisites and mechanisms, as well as for eventual subsidence hazard assessment. Direct observations in caves, aimed both at speleogenetic investigation and breakdown characterization on regional- or site-specific levels, should be employed wherever possible.     

Evolution of karst in Messinian gypsum (Monferrato,Northern Italy)

In the Tertiary Basin of Piedmont (Northern Italy) a 100-150 m thick Messinian sedimentary succession crops out, composed of pre-evaporitic clays, gypsum beds and post-evaporitic lacustrine-marine fine-grained sediments. In the Monferrato area the thickness of the evaporite sequence is highly variable (0-140 m) due to an important erosion surface formed at the end of the evaporite cycle and carved in the gypsum beds. Epigenic caves probably formed during this short intra-Messinian phase of emersion. Cave sediments contain benthonic and planctonic foraminiferal associations ranging in age from Burdigalian to Upper Pliocene. These sediments have probably been deposited in recent times, although it cannot be completely ruled out that they accumulated in caves developed in Upper Messinian times. The formation of the most important caves of this area probably started at the end of the Messinian under epigenic conditions. Possibly, those inherited caves enlarged slowly during the Quaternary in an intrastratal and confined hypogene karst system.     

Speleothems in gypsum caves and their paleoclimatological significance

This article highlights the relationship between speleothems growing inside gypsum caves and the particular climate that existed during their development. Speleothems in gypsum caves normally consist of calcium carbonate (calcite) or calcium sulphate (gypsum) and the abundance of such deposits greatly differs from zone to zone. Observations carried out over the last 20 years in gypsum caves subjected to very different climates (Italy, Spain, New Mexico, northern Russia, Cuba, Argentina) highlight wide variation in their cave deposits. In arid or semi-arid climates, the speleothems are mainly composed of gypsum, whilst in temperate, humid or tropical regions, carbonate formations are largely predominant. In polar zones no speleothems develop. These mineralogical details could be useful paleoclimatic indicators of climate change. The interpretation proposed is based on the fact that in gypsum karst the kind of speleothems deposited is determined by competition between the two principal mechanisms that cause precipitation of calcite and gypsum. These mechanisms are completely different: calcite speleothem evolution is mainly controlled by CO₂ diffusion, while gypsum deposits develop mostly due to evaporation. Therefore, the prevalence of one kind of speleothem over the other, and the relationship between the solution–precipitation processes of calcite and gypsum, may provide evidence of a specific paleoclimate. Additionally, other non-common deposits in gypsum caves like moonmilk, cave rafts and dolomite speleothems can be used as markers for the prevalence of long, dry periods in humid areas, seasonal changes in climate, or rainfall trends in some gypsum areas. Moreover, the dating of gypsum speleothems could contribute paleoclimatic data relating to dry periods when calcite speleothems are not deposited. In contrast, the dating of calcite speleothems in gypsum caves could identify former wet periods in arid zones.     

华北型煤田陷落柱形成过程研究

在地下水系统的径流或排泄带上,且处于次级向斜轴部或转折端附近、小断层或环形断层发育地段,如果古地表岩溶空洞、古地下岩溶空洞和膏溶空洞等为岩层塌陷提供了发源地,陷落柱发育的可能性极大。华北型煤田陷落柱的形成是以底部岩层中空洞发育为基础,地下水的强烈交替和水-岩作用为条件,岩体自身重力、地应力集中以及溶洞内的真空负压三重作用为动力,经过垮落、溶蚀、搬运、塌陷、冒落等周而复始的过程,分阶段逐步形成陷落柱。      

高密度电阻率法在阿联酋某城C9～C11测区溶洞勘察中的应用

阿拉伯联合酋长国卡里法市B城是一座新规划城市，位于中东海湾沙漠海滩区，由于经三系，第四系地导台含有大量的石膏等萨布哈（Subkha)蒸发盐岩类，大范围发育有大量地下溶洞，其埋藏深度一般为5 m-15m，严重影响了城市建设及工业区开发，在该区采用了高密度电阻率法，克服了地表接地电阻大和溶洞与围岩电性差异小的困难，查明了地下20m深度范围内地下溶洞分布情况，经阿方技术专家验证评价，该次勘查成果可靠，达到了预期目的。     

Sulphuric acid geofluid contribution on thermal carbonate coastal springs (Italy)

Hypogenic caves, developed by sulphuric acid speleogenesis, are known all over the world among which the Santa Cesarea Terme caves have been included. They are four submerged caves, located along a coastal carbonate sector in Southern Italy and hosting the outflow of coastal springs of thermal mixed waters (from 21 to 33 °C). These waters derive from the mixing of three water end members: the fresh pure groundwater of a wide karstic aquifer, the deep sulphur thermal water and the seawater. This cave system represents an almost unique case of hypogenic sea caves in carbonate environment. The thermal mixed waters have a different effect on the surrounding rocks of the caves, influencing the sulphuric acid speleogenetic process within the whole cave system. To understand the complex and overlapping natural processes acting on the development of these coastal caves, a multidisciplinary study has been carried out. This study has integrated all the data resulting from different methods and technologies, merging morphology, structural geology, hydrogeology, hydrogeochemistry and mineralogy. This multidisciplinary study has allowed to define the main geochemical processes acting within these caves, including the cave development and the formation of the mineral concretions. After the introduction of H₂S in the thermal waters, formed by the reduction of sulphates in the sedimentary deposits crossed at depth in the offshore, the oxidation occurs within the caves, producing sulphuric acid. Favoured by upwelling deep-seated thermal flows, this acid dissolves the limestone, with condensation corrosion process that involve replacement of limestone rock with gypsum. This process has resulted to be more active and remarkable within the Gattulla Cave, one of the Santa Cesarea Terme sea caves.     

Chemistry of waters from selected caves in Slovakia—a reconnaissance study

The chemical composition of water samples was studied from different caves in Slovakia. The water samples were collected from caves of two karst regions: (1) the Demänovský Cave System (DCS), situated in the Low Tatra Mountains (Northern Slovakia), which is mainly formed of limestone and dolomites; and (2) the Slovakian Karst to the Southeast is formed of limestone. A considerable difference between water from the two regions was shown. The waters from the DCS, that were controlled by vadose water percolating through different types of host rocks, contained more Mg ions than those from the Slovakian Karst caves whereas, the concentration of SO₄ was controlled by the dissolution of displacive gypsum and/or oxidation of pyrite. The distribution of NO₃ in the studied samples was random, hence nitrates probably derived from few pollution sources. The total mineralization of the water was covariant with calcite and aragonite saturation indices. In general, both parameters are higher in the Slovakian Karst caves than in the DCS. It is controlled probably by differences in climatic conditions, soil and plant covers between these two regions. The main goal of this article is to characterize the major-ion water chemistry within the studied caves as well as some microelements. The results have confirmed the dominant role of the bedrock petrography in forming the general chemistry of cave waters.     

Geological and environmental implications of the evaporite karst in Spain

In Spain, evaporite outcrops cover approximately 7% of the total area of the country. Most of the evaporitic formations are made up of Ca-sulfates (gypsum/anhydrite) or Ca-sulfates and halite. Certain Paleogene marine evaporites also contain K-Mg-chlorides, and some Tertiary continental formations bear substantial amounts of Na-sulfates in the subsurface (glauberite and thenardite). Mesozoic evaporitic formations commonly wedge out towards the ground surface, passing into condensed sequences and dissolution-collapse breccias. Some of these highly porous breccias constitute major regional aquifers. In several areas, interstratal karstification of the evaporites has given rise to gravitational deformations such as basin structures, monoclines, and collapse structures covering several square kilometers that record a cumulative subsidence in excess of 200 m (Teruel and Calatayud Grabens). A widespread consequence of evaporite dissolution processes in Spain is the hydrochemical degradation of surface waters. Some of the largest and most outstanding lake systems, from an environmental perspective, occur in karstic depressions developed in evaporitic formations (Fuente de Piedra, Gallocanta, Bujaraloz, and Bañolas lakes). Sinkhole activity is a major geohazard in several evaporite karst areas. The sinkhole risk has a particularly high impact in sectors where Tertiary evaporites are overlain by Quaternary alluvial aquifers (Calatayud, Zaragoza, and Madrid areas). Some of the detrimental effects of subsidence include severe damage to historical monuments (Calatayud), the demolition of a whole village (Puilatos), or the derailment of a freight train (Zaragoza area). The deepest gypsum caves are found in Triassic diapiric structures (El Sumidor Cave, 210 m deep), and the longest ones are developed in horizontally lying Neogene sequences (Sorbas caves, and Estremera maze cave). The Cardona diapir hosts salt caves up to 4,300 m long whose genesis is related to flooding of mine galleries caused by the interception of a phreatic conduit. The main anthropogenic impacts on the endokarstic systems are related to the disposal of wastewaters and the destruction of caves by quarrying. The fluvial valleys that cross Tertiary evaporitic outcrops commonly show peculiar geological characteristics related to dissolution-induced synsedimentary subsidence phenomena: (1) Thickened alluvium filling dissolution basins up to several tens of kilometers long and more than 100 m deep. The largest thickenings are found in areas where the bedrock contains halite and glauberite. (2) Superimposed alluvial units locally bounded by angular unconformities. (3) Abundant deformational structures and paleosinkholes related to the rockhead and/or interstratal karstification of the substratum. These fluvial valleys typically are flanked by a prominent gypsum escarpment. Rock-falls favored by the dissolutional enlargement of joints derived from these scarps are the type of mass movement which has caused the highest number of casualties in Spain.     

塔河油田碳酸盐岩油藏古岩溶洞穴层状结构与形成机理

随着岩溶型碳酸盐岩油藏开发实践的不断深入,层状洞穴储层结构特征和流体同层连通特点逐渐被学者重视。层控岩溶结构、形成要素和过程等是本类油藏有效开发的关键。通过原始地层组构对比和野外溶洞特点,认为:塔河奥陶系岩溶层具较好的对比标志层和岩性差异,为层状岩溶洞穴发育奠定了物质基础;野外顺水平层理多层溶洞和受控于层理缝的管道型古暗河等地质现象,证实了层控岩溶普遍存在。在岩溶洞穴单井识别、连井测井对比、单井动态及地震波形特征的基础上,以典型溶洞带为例,识别出3个主要洞穴层,建立了全新的3层洞穴储集体地质结构剖面:第1层洞穴以砂砾岩充填为主要特点,第2层洞穴呈现洞穴规模大且泥质充填严重,第3层规模较小,主要发育于岩溶地貌高地。运用现代岩溶理论,探讨了层控岩溶的形成机制:碳酸盐岩原岩组构差异是岩溶作用的物质基础和主控因素之一;潜流带岩溶水(饱含CO₂)控制着岩溶洞穴的横向发育,岩溶古地貌控制同层洞穴的横向差异;平缓地层条件下的潜水面水位垂向带迁移控制洞穴的岩溶期次及层状结构。基于各岩溶要素认识,构建了层状岩溶储层发育模式。     

塔里木盆地轮古西地区奥陶系古岩溶储层发育特征研究

在区域地质背景研究及大量文献调研的基础上,结合地质地震资料,通过单井分析及连井对比研究,探讨了研究区古岩溶的形成机理和控制因素、储层的空间发育及岩溶洞穴的充填特征。认为轮古西地区经历多期地壳抬升,奥陶系古潜山发育两期岩溶旋回,纵向上形成了四套与洞穴有关的古岩溶储层,其中第Ⅱ岩溶层主要分布在岩溶斜坡区,洞穴广泛发育,充填程度低且位于构造高部位,是最有利的油气聚集层段。     

GIS and ANN coupling model: an innovative approach to evaluate vulnerability of karst water inrush in coalmines of north China

Evaporites, including rock salt (halite) and gypsum (or anhydrite), are the most soluble among common rocks; they dissolve readily to form the same types of karst features that commonly are found in limestones and dolomites. Evaporites are present in 32 of the 48 contiguous states in USA, and they underlie about 40% of the land area. Typical evaporite-karst features observed in outcrops include sinkholes, caves, disappearing streams, and springs, whereas other evidence of active evaporite karst includes surface-collapse structures and saline springs or saline plumes that result from salt dissolution. Many evaporites also contain evidence of paleokarst, such as dissolution breccias, breccia pipes, slumped beds, and collapse structures. All these natural karst phenomena can be sources of engineering or environmental problems. Dangerous sinkholes and caves can form rapidly in evaporite rocks, or pre-existing karst features can be reactivated and open up (collapse) under certain hydrologic conditions or when the land is put to new uses. Many karst features also propagate upward through overlying surficial deposits. Human activities also have caused development of evaporite karst, primarily in salt deposits. Boreholes (petroleum tests or solution-mining operations) or underground mines may enable unsaturated water to flow through or against salt deposits, either intentionally or accidentally, thus allowing development of small to large dissolution cavities. If the dissolution cavity is large enough and shallow enough, successive roof failures can cause land subsidence and/or catastrophic collapse. Evaporite karst, natural and human-induced, is far more prevalent than is commonly believed.     

广州市白云区夏茅村岩溶地面塌陷特征及致灾因素和风险分析

广州市白云区夏茅村岩溶塌陷地质灾害严重,塌陷区内地质环境条件极其复杂,隐伏灰岩岩溶土洞发育强烈,溶洞、土洞规模较大,且发育多层溶洞,溶洞间相互连通,岩溶塌陷区基岩面起伏较大,高程变化剧烈,第四系覆盖层厚度较大,底部粉质黏土层土洞发育,土体中规模巨大的土洞是产生岩溶地面塌陷的基础条件。基岩断裂构造带及其影响带范围内,岩石破碎,形成导水断层,存在地下水迳流通道,沿断裂带地下水循环活跃,溶蚀强烈,形成岩溶强发育带,为岩溶塌陷的发生提供了良好的动力条件。区内楼房基础施工扰动了地下水和土洞间的平衡状态从而成为了地面塌陷发生的诱发因素。运用7项地质环境条件指标和5项经济人口指标分别定性评估岩溶地面塌陷的易发度和易损度,并将二者叠加进行地质灾害风险评估。研究结果表明,夏茅村潜在地质灾害风险大,只有严格控制地下水动力条件,才能避免再次发生岩溶地面塌陷。     

千米桥古潜山岩溶地貌演化及古岩溶洞穴发育特征

运用印模法和残厚法以及地震相位追踪对比等古地貌分析法研究揭示,千米桥古潜山岩溶地貌的演化形成先后经历了加里东—海西暴露发育期、印支—燕山暴露改造期、喜马拉雅埋藏定形期等演化阶段。古岩溶洞穴的发育和分布不仅受地貌形态及潜水面的控制,而且与岩性组合、古水文环境及断裂构造密切相关。加里东—海西暴露期地壳的持续抬升和区域潜水面的不断下移,造成古岩溶洞穴的多旋回层状分布,孔洞多被砂泥质充填,有效孔洞保存较少;印支—燕山暴露期发育的古岩溶洞穴受断裂体系影响,分布具有一定随机性,并且多被埋藏期化学半充填,成为目前古潜山油气储层的主要储集空间。利用钻井和测井信息及洞穴充填物,可在生产现场识别古岩溶洞穴的存在及分布,为古潜山油气储层的综合评价提供依据。     

河北省崆山白云洞成因与演化

河北省崆山白云洞发育在以中寒武统张夏组为主的碳酸盐岩地层中,平面形态主要受NNW向、NE向和近EW向断裂控制,垂向上可分为3层,各层洞穴以沿陡倾断裂侵蚀、溶蚀而成的通道相连.第一层厅堂状溶洞(天堂、人间和地府)沿NNW向断裂展布,形成于早更新世中晚期;第二层格网状洞穴(迷宫和龙宫上部)沿NNW.和NE向断裂发育,形成于中更新世中期—晚更新世初;第三层形态曲折的廊道形洞穴(龙宫下部)主要追踪NE和NNW向断裂延伸,形成于晚更新世晚期—早全新世初期.在白云洞形成发育过程中,曾经历了多次构造运动破坏.现今的白云洞,景观损毁、岩石破裂严重,灾害承受力低,因此洞穴结构稳定性保护和洞穴地质环境治理是当前重要而紧迫的任务.     

广西东兰-凤山地区石炭纪-二叠纪碳酸盐岩洞穴发育特点及其控制因素

碳酸盐岩次生溶蚀孔洞是优质的储集空间,为油气的运聚提供条件。为研究溶洞发育的控制因素,选取广西东兰-凤山地区石炭纪-二叠纪碳酸盐岩溶蚀特征进行分析。镜下显示,研究区岩石类型为亮晶生屑灰岩、颗粒灰泥灰岩、含颗粒灰泥灰岩、晶粒灰岩和灰泥颗粒灰岩等,孔隙类型主要为粒间溶蚀孔、粒内溶蚀孔、晶间孔和微裂缝。研究发现,影响洞穴发育的主要因素有构造、岩组类型、流体性质、气候及岩溶古地貌。构造控制洞穴发育规模,在构造破碎带及其附近容易发育大规模洞穴;目的层大套灰岩是溶蚀的物质基础,力学强度较大的亮晶生屑灰岩易于形成大型洞穴,当岩石含较多灰泥或发生重结晶时,溶蚀难度增加;酸性流体、温暖潮湿气候和岩溶斜坡地貌,为洞穴发育的有利条件。其中,构造对洞穴发育的控制作用最大。     

无锡某地基埋藏型岩溶发育特征及充填物来源

研究埋藏型岩溶的发育特征和充填物来源对拟建超高层建筑的选址及持力层的选择具有重要意义。本文通过跨孔地震CT对溶洞和破碎带进行探测,并对部分代表性溶洞的充填物进行比重试验、颗粒分析和X射线衍射分析,结合现场工程地质情况,研究了距地表以下80余米处岩溶的规模、分布情况、岩溶发育特征及溶洞充填物来源。结果表明:溶洞发育规模较小,面积多在2m2以下,在垂直方向具有多层性;溶洞充填率达到92.7%,多为硬塑泥质全充填,承载力较大,可作为基础持力层;溶洞填充物的矿物成分基本相同,且与上覆基岩一致,充填物来源主要为上覆基岩的剥蚀;溶洞之间不存在大的连通通道,且地下水位已降至场地溶洞以下,故该处溶洞不会进一步发育,不会对上部地基稳定性造成威胁。      

水库岸坡的承压水模型研究

基于实际工程水库岸坡失稳资料和现有岸坡失稳模型,指出现有模型的局限性,提出了新的水库岸坡承压水模型。给出了承压水模型适用条件,推导了滑带底部承压水压力的理论计算公式。得到了考虑承压水时的岸坡安全系数计算公式,验证了承压水存在的合理性。研究结果表明,在考虑承压水情况下,岸坡稳定性受降雨入渗量和库水位变化的影响显著,且两个影响因素联合作用的效果比单个因素作用再叠加更明显。承压水岸坡渗透比在（10-5~10-2）区间时,岸坡稳定性最低,安全系数存在一个最小值,最易发生失稳。渗透比相同时,降雨入渗量越大,岸坡稳定性越低。     

石门县上五通石膏矿区水文地质条件及其作用浅析

石门县上五通石膏矿床是我省发现的大型优质石膏矿床之一。矿区水文地质条件比较简单,石膏矿体具有良好的隔水顶、底板,保存完整。但由于构造活动及地表风化作用的影响,矿层在地下水的作用下,其保存情况及矿石类型形成了明显的分带性。笔者以矿区水文地质条件为基础,将石膏矿的溶蚀带划分为淋滤带、溶滤水化带和水化带;并对矿区水文地质条件的成矿作用和地下水对早期形成的硬石膏矿床的改造和破坏作用进行了具体分析;提出了寻找隐伏石膏矿的水化学标志。这对研究石膏矿床的成因、指导找矿,以及加强矿山建设都是有益的。