海河流域气象和水文降水资料对比分析及时空变异

选用海河流域上国家气象局30个气象站1958-2007年共50年的日降水资料,以及水文部门248个雨量站1995-2004年共10年的资料,采用线性回归、5年滑动平均、Mann-Kendall趋势分析、Kolmogorov-Smirnov检验、Z检验和F检验等方法,在充分考虑两套降水资料优势的基础上,分析了海河流域降水的时空变化特征。发现：(1) 海河流域气象站和雨量站的年降水量基本都符合正态分布,其均值和方差在统计意义上相等;两套资料的相关程度较高,气象站日降水资料可以用来延长水文站资料;(2) 在1958-2007年,除春季降水量略有增加外,海河流域的降水整体上呈减少趋势,夏季和全年减少趋势非常明显,而且1980年后呈加速减少;(3) 海河流域夏季和全年的降水分布形势相似,以太行山和燕山为界,分为山前多雨带、山前平原区少雨带以及山后少雨带,而且降水从南向北,从沿海到内陆逐渐减少;冬季水汽含量最少,基本上呈南多北少的分布;春秋季的分布特征相似,表现为冬夏季的过渡状态。近50年来,五台山地区和太行山前的部分地区降水减少趋势明显。     

Spatial and temporal distribution of precipitation based on corrected TRMM data around the Hexi Corridor, China

Accurate rainfall distribution is difficult to acquire based on limited meteorological stations, especially in remote areas like high mountains and deserts. The Hexi Corridor and its adjacent regions （including the Qilian Mountains and the Alxa Plateau） are typical districts where there are only 30 available rain gauges. Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission （TRMM） data provide a possible solution. After precision analysis of monthly 0.25 degree resolution TRMM 3B43 data from 1998 to 2012, we find that the correlations between TRMM 3B43 estimates and rain gauge precipitation are significant overall and in each station around the Hexi Corridor; however, the biases of annual precipitation differ in different stations and are seriously overestimated in most of the sites. Thus, Inverse Distance Weighting （IDW） interpolation method was used to rectify TRMM data based on the difference between TRMM 3B43 estimates and rain gauge observations. The results show that rectified TRMM data present more details than rain gauges in remote areas where there are few stations, alt- hough they show high coherence of distribution. Precipitation decreases from southeast to northwest on an annual and seasonal scale. There are three rainfall centers （〉500 mm） including Menyuan, Qilian and Toson Lake, and two low rain- fall centers （〈50 mm） including Dunhuang and Ejin Banner. Meanwhile, precipitation in most of the study area presents an increasing trend; especially in northern Qilian Mountains （〉5 mm/a）, Badain Jaran Desert （〉2 mm/a）, Toson Lake （〉20 mm/a） and Qingtu Lake （〉20 ram/a） which shows a significant increasing trend, while precipitation in Hala Lake （〈-2 mm/a） and Tengger Desert （〈-3 mm/a） demonstrates a decreasing trend.     

天津夏季降水演变规律及其城市效应

利用1956~2005 年天津25 个雨量站的月降水数据, 借助累积距平、相关分析、Mann- Kendall 秩次相关检验 法等, 分析了夏季降水的时空演变规律。在此基础上, 结合ARCGIS 空间分析功能, 研究了天津雨岛效应的时空特 征。结果表明: 25 个站点的年降水量70%以上集中在夏季, 夏季降水倾向率均为负, 60%的站点通过了显著水平检 验。从加权平均得到的全市夏季降水序列得出1956~2005 年倾向率为- 24.7mm/10a, 其中1956~1988 年倾向率为 7.6mm/10a, 1989~2005 年倾向率达- 28.6mm/10a, 由此可见天津夏季降水减少主要发生在近17 年。又比较其不同 历史时段的空间演变规律发现, 夏季降水减少趋势北部山区大于南部平原, 南部平原的市区大于市郊, 呈现城市雨 岛效应, 特别是在20 世纪70 年代初期之后雨岛效应更加明显, 且受降水的丰枯影响较大, 丰水年雨岛现象明显, 枯水年雨岛消失。     

How is the precipitation distributed vertically in arid mountain region of Northwest China?

Precipitation in the arid region of Northwest China (NWC) shows high spatial and temporal variability,in large part because of the region's complex topography and moisture conditions.However,rain gauges in the area are sparse,and most are located at altitudes below 2000 m,which limits our understanding of precipitation at higher altitudes.Interpolated precipitation products and satellite-based datasets with high spatiotemporal resolution can potentially be a substitute for rain gauge data.In this study,the spatial and temporal proper-ties of precipitation in the arid region of NWC were analyzed using two gridded precipitation products:SURF_CLI_CHN_PRE_DAY_GRID_0.5 (CHN) and Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) 3B43.The CHN and TRMM 3B43 data showed that in summer,precipitation was more concentrated in southern Xinjiang than in northern Xinjiang,and the opposite was true in winter.The largest difference in precipitation between mountainous areas and plains appeared in summer.High-elevation areas with high precipitation showed more stable annual precipitation.Different sub-regions showed distinctive precipitation distributions with elevation,and both datasets showed that the maximum precipitation zone appeared at high altitude.     

Estimation of precipitation fields from 1-minute rain gauge time series – comparison of spatial and spatio-temporal interpolation methods

Accurate estimations of spatio-temporal fields at unsampled locations are important in a number of applications. Often, spatio-temporal fields are advected, which means the change in field values over time at a particular point in space stems to a large extent from motion of a more or less constant spatial field. For such dynamic fields, interpolation methods including information on the motion behaviour of the field are promising extensions of solely spatial (snapshot) and symmetric spatio-temporal methods. In this paper, the performance of different deterministic and geostatistical interpolation methods is compared for precipitation estimation from 1-minute time series of spatially distributed rain gauges. The focus is on spatio-temporal methods that include information on the motion behaviour of the rainfield, estimated from weather radar using optical flow. The different interpolation methods are introduced and evaluated using rain gauge measurements of a 15-day period and cross-validation. The results show that including information on the motion behaviour significantly improves interpolation quality in terms of RMSE.     

Throughfall and its spatial variability in a temperate rainforest of simple structure

There are few throughfall data from southern hemisphere closed-forest, and none from Tasmanian callidendrous cool-temperate rainforest, which has a simpler structure than most primary rainforests. We determined throughfall, measured its local spatial variation, and tested its relationships with rainfall, rainfall intensity, wind speed, canopy dryness, canopy cover, and other structural variables in a cool-temperate callidendrous rainforest in Tasmania. Eighty-two percent of the precipitation was measured as throughfall, which occurred after 2.3 mm of rain fell on dry canopies. The cumulative rainfall in 25 randomly located funnel rain gauges on the forest floor varied from 160 to 567 mm. Canopy cover and other structural variables did not predict the spatial pattern of throughfall. While throughfall in rainfall events was related to rainfall amount and intensity, wind speed did not affect throughfall as a percentage of rainfall. Percentages of throughfall to rainfall over 100 for many low rainfall events may indicate a contribution of fog drip to precipitation on the forest floor. The high local spatial variability in throughfall indicates the mean moisture conditions on the forest floor may not be a good indicator of the potential for localised fire damage.     

1958-2007年海河流域降水时空变异(英文)

The seasonal variability and spatial distribution of precipitation are the main cause of flood and drought events.The study of spatial distribution and temporal trend of precipitation in river basins has been paid more and more attention.However,in China,the precipita- tion data are measured by weather stations(WS)of China Meteorological Administration and hydrological rain gauges(RG)of national and local hydrology bureau.The WS data usually have long record with fewer stations,while the RG data usually hav...     

Spatial and temporal variability of daily precipitation in Haihe River basin, 1958–2007

The seasonal variability and spatial distribution of precipitation are the main cause of flood and drought events. The study of spatial distribution and temporal trend of precipitation in river basins has been paid more and more attention. However, in China, the precipitation data are measured by weather stations (WS) of China Meteorological Administration and hydrological rain gauges (RG) of national and local hydrology bureau. The WS data usually have long record with fewer stations, while the RG data usually have short record with more stations. The consistency and correlation of these two data sets have not been well understood. In this paper, the precipitation data from 30 weather stations for 1958–2007 and 248 rain gauges for 1995–2004 in the Haihe River basin are examined and compared using linear regression, 5-year moving average, Mann-Kendall trend analysis, Kolmogorov-Smirnov test, Z test and F test methods. The results show that the annual precipitation from both WS and RG records are normally distributed with minor difference in the mean value and variance. It is statistically feasible to extend the precipitation of RG by WS data sets. Using the extended precipitation data, the detailed spatial distribution of the annual and seasonal precipitation amounts as well as their temporal trends are calculated and mapped. The various distribution maps produced in the study show that for the whole basin the precipitation of 1958–2007 has been decreasing except for spring season. The decline trend is significant in summer, and this trend is stronger after the 1980s. The annual and seasonal precipitation amounts and changing trends are different in different regions and seasons. The precipitation is decreasing from south to north, from coastal zone to inland area.     

降雨的空间不均性对模拟产流量和产沙量不确定的影响

在传统的水文/水质模型中,降雨被认为是在空间上均匀分布并且对模型输出的不确定性不产生影响。本文的目的是评价由于降雨的空间分布不均匀性对模型输出-产流量和产沙量-不确定性的影响。本文选取卢氏流域为研究区域,使用SWAT模型和流域内24个雨量站的降雨作为模型的输入。基于降雨空间分布均匀的假定下,每次用一个雨量站的点雨量来作为流域的面平均降雨量,模拟的产流量和产沙量的不确定性来自于降水的不均匀性。模拟的产流量和产沙量的不确定性大于降雨的不确定性,结果表明,在运用水文/水质模型时,为了准确的模拟、预测产流量和产沙量必须掌握降雨的空间分布特性并将其应用于水文、水质模拟之中。     

基于GWR模型的陕西秦巴山区TRMM降水数据降尺度研究

应用TRMM降水数据,进行国内典型区域降尺度相关研究,可弥补应用气象站点数据研究带来的局限。以陕西秦巴山区为研究区,基于TRMM降水数据和NDVI数据,应用GWR模型和比例指数,获得GWR年、月降尺度数据并进行检验,最后分析地形对降尺度结果的影响。结果表明：获得的1 km分辨率的GWR降尺度降水数据,具有较强的细节表现能力;降尺度数据与实测降水数据年尺度上相关系数为0.88,月为0.93,相关性较好;与TRMM原始数据对比,降尺度结果降水值略小,整体低估降水;区内秦岭山地GWR降尺度结果精度变化幅度最小,相似地形条件下,海拔越高,GWR降尺度结果表现越好;采用GWR模型进行秦巴山区TRMM降水数据的降尺度研究,具有较强的适用性。     

Winter stemflow nutrient inputs into a southern New England broadleaved deciduous forest

Stemflow leaching from the above‐ground vegetative surfaces of broadleaved deciduous canopy trees has been well documented during the growing season. Winter stemflow leaching from the leafless crowns of deciduous trees is less well understood, especially in the context of global climate change. Boreal and northern temperate forests are forecast to have a lower incidence of snow events and an increased frequency of rain and mixed precipitation events. A change in the seasonal precipitation regime may be significant due to linkages among global change, stemflow leaching, and biogeochemical processes. The aim of this paper is to (1) demonstrate the extent of winter stemflow nutrient leaching from deciduous trees; (2) explore how winter stemflow leachate quantity may vary as a function of the type of precipitation event; and (3) quantify the extent to which an increase in the incidence of snow‐to‐rain events would enhance stemflow leaching. Measuring meteorological conditions, stemflow volumes, and stemflow chemistry over two successive winter seasons in New England demonstrated that winter stemflow drainage was significantly enriched compared to the incident bulk precipitation: 162 times greater for K+, 44 times greater for Ca2+, and 29 times greater for Mg2+. Snow‐to‐rain events leached considerably greater quantities of base cations from the deciduous trees than all other types of precipitation events. An increased frequency of snow‐to‐rain events from 13.8% to 25% of winter precipitation events would substantially increase mean stemflow nutrient inputs to the bases of forest trees during winter. Implications for significantly increased winter stemflow leachate inputs, corresponding to an increased incidence of snow‐to‐rain events, include a shift in the biogeographic range of species, delayed leaf emergence, and increased soil respiration.     

The application of geodetic radio interferometric surveying to the monitoring of sea-level

Summary. Under project IRIS (International Radio Interferometric Surveying) geodesists are using Very Long Baseline Interferometry (VLBI) to monitor polar motion to 1-2 ms of arc and UT1 to 0.05-0.10 ms, and to develop a global geodynamic network to detect and study centimetre level displacements of reference points associated with large-scale phenomena such as tectonic plate motion and glacial rebound. Differential positioning techniques using the signals broadcast by the satellites of the Global Positioning System (GPS) are being used to study finer scale phenomena, such as localized subsidence, and economically to relate these specialized surveys to the geodynamic network. Including tide gauge stations in this system will make it possible to detect motions of specific gauges and correct or delete the measurements from those gauges when computing changes in sea-level. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) has selected several tide gauges on the east and west coasts of the United States, and initial epoch GPS surveys to tie the gauges to VLBI observations have already begun. Other countries participating in project IRIS are planning similar activities. In addition to providing a globally based land reference datum for the tide gauge measurements, the IRIS polar motion and UT1 time series may contribute directly to monitoring and interpreting global sea level changes. Changes in the volume and distribution of ice masses result in long-term motions of the axis of rotation, and sea-level changes affect the length of day (lod). The IRIS time series will certainly have the resolution required to detect the expected polar motion and changes in lod, and a properly designed global VLBI/GPS network should allow the ice/sea-level effects to be separated from crustal dynamics effects.     

GROUND SIGNATURE OF AN ANTECEDENT PRECIPITATION EVENT: DETECTION OF SURFACE COOLING BY AVHRR SATELLITE DATA

Evaluation of the Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR) sensor on-board the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) satellites shows that the spatial pattern of rainfall distribution can be detected on data acquired after a precipitation event. The thermal infrared spectral region of AVHRR data shows good comparison to rainfall amount and distribution recorded at NOAA cooperative weather service rain gauges. The thermal infrared information indicates a cooling of temperature associated with measured rainfall. Latent energy of evaporation, soil thermal properties, and transpiration contribute to the observed cooling. After surface drying following a rainfall event, thermal inertia and evapotranspiration remain sufficiently affected so that the increased soil moisture is detected through decreases in temperature, independent of land cover and soil type.     

基于XGBoost的多源降水数据融合方法研究

气象站点观测降水难以精确反映降水时空分布与变化,而雷达降水存在复杂地形区域精度不高等问题。为了最大限度发挥两者的优势,文章以广东省北部山区为研究区域,选择2018-08-26—30一次暴雨过程为研究对象,结合地形、与海岸线距离、植被指数、经纬度等地表辅助参量,分析地面站点降水与地表辅助参量、雷达降水的相关关系,利用XGBoost算法与克里金插值方法,构建地面-雷达日降水数据融合模型,得到了空间分辨率为1 km的日降水融合数据集。此外,采用多元线性回归（LM）与克里金插值方法,实现了地面-雷达日降水数据的融合,并利用地面降水数据分别对XGBoost与LM日降水融合性能进行精度验证。结果表明：1）地面降水与雷达降水存在显著的正相关,地面降水与地表辅助参量之间的相关性随时间变化;2）XGBoost预测精度整体上高于LM预测结果;经模型残差校正后,XGBoost融合模型的精度整体上优于LM融合模型,这是因为XGBoost方法在捕捉地面降水与地表辅助参量、雷达降水之间关系性能上优于LM方法。     

Past and future climate variations in the Norwegian Arctic: overview and novel analyses

Sparse stations and serious measuring problems hamper analyses of climatic conditions in the Arctic. This paper presents a discussion of measuring problems in the Arctic and gives an overview of observed past and projected future climate variations in Svalbard and Jan Mayen. Novel analyses of temperature conditions during precipitation and trends in fractions of solid/liquid precipitation at the Arctic weather stations are also outlined. Analyses based on combined and homogenized series from the regular weather stations in the region indicate that the measured annual precipitation has increased by more than 2.5% per decade since the measurements started in the beginning of the 20th century. The annual temperature has increased in Svalbard and Jan Mayen during the latest decades, but the present level is still lower than in the 1930s. Downscaled scenarios for Svalbard Airport indicate a further increase in temperature and precipitation. Analyses based on observations of precipitation types at the regular weather stations demonstrate that the annual fraction of solid precipitation has decreased at all stations during the latest decades. The reduced fraction of solid precipitation implies that the undercatch of the precipitation gauges is reduced. Consequently, part of the observed increase in the annual precipitation is fictitious and is due to a larger part of the "true" precipitation being caught by the gauges. With continued warming in the region, this virtual increase will be measured in addition to an eventual real increase.     

1961—2016年中国昼夜降水变化的时空格局

全球气候变暖背景下中国降水量变化的区域差异显著。基于1961—2016年期间,全国763个观测台站白昼和夜间的降水观测数据,分别从昼夜降水量、降水日数、降水强度以及对总降水量的贡献率等四个方面,解读中国九大流域昼夜降水变化的时空格局。结果表明：① 昼夜降水量变化的流域差异显著,可归纳为四种类型：昼夜同增型、昼夜同减型、昼增夜减型和昼减夜增型。② 流域总降水量变化与昼夜降水量密切相关。淮河流域降水量减少是由白昼降水量（-0.72 mm/a）减少所致,而黄河流域降水量减少则是由夜间降水量（-0.21 mm/a）减少所致。③ 干旱区、半干旱区及半湿润区的流域,昼夜大雨的雨量要高于昼夜暴雨;湿润区的流域,则表现为昼夜暴雨的雨量要高于昼夜大雨,尤其是珠江流域和东南诸河流域。④ 从全国尺度来看,白昼大雨、夜间大雨和暴雨对总降水量的贡献率超过10%,而白昼暴雨的贡献率约10%。湿润区流域昼夜暴雨对总降水量的贡献率高于昼夜大雨对总降水量的贡献率,而干旱区-半干旱区流域则相反。研究结果有助于深化认识全球变暖对区域日降水循环的影响。     

Automated flash flood warning systems

The hazard of flash flooding, affecting both remote upland stream valleys and urbanizing metropolitan watersheds, poses a need for rapid identification and analysis of sudden changes in stream flow to allow timely public warning. Since 1976, the US National Weather Service (NWS), in cooperation with various regional authorities, has developed a new, low-cost system in response to this need. This system, known as ALERT (Automated Local Evaluation in Real Time) employs stream and rain gauges equipped with self-activating radio transmitters which communicate with a central microcomputer. Using software calibrated to the watershed in question, predictions of downstream flood levels may be rapidly generated. This paper reviews the origins and technology of ALERT systems and reports on the experiences to date of 32 system users. The survey found a high level of satisfaction with ALERT, but uncertainty concerning the reliability of the systems, since few have yet been tested in actual flash floods.     

Analysis of the Spatio-temporal Changes in Acid Rain and Their Causes in China (1998-2018)

With the rapid development of the economy, acid rain has become one of the major environmental problems that endanger human health. Being the largest developing country, the environmental problems caused by acid rain are of increasing concern with the rapid industrialization and urbanization in China. Recently, many researchers have focused on acid rain. To better understand the temporal and spatial dynamics of acid rain in China, the monitoring data on acid rain from 1998 to 2018 were studied using ArcGIS 10.2. The results show that the proportion of acid rain cities, the frequency, and the area of acid rain were decreasing, however, the situation still remains serious. Overall, the chemical type of acid rain was mainly sulfuric acid rain. However, the concentration ratio of SO₄ ^2-/NO₃ ^- decreased by 81.90% in 2018 compared with 1998, and presented a decreasing trend, which indicates that the contribution of nitrate to precipitation acidity has been increasing year by year. This research will help us to understand the distribution characteristics and causes of acid rain in China, and it may provide an effective reference for the prevention and control of acid rain in China.     

位涡分析在新疆暴雨研究中的初步应用

新疆是全国有名的干旱、半干旱地区,年平均降水量约147mm,不到全国平均值的1/4,但暴雨造成的洪水却是新疆的主要灾害之一。随着新疆气候由“暖干”向“暖湿”型的转变,暴雨出现的频率可能会增加,暴雨带来的洪涝也有可能比以往更加严重,因此有必要加强对新疆暴雨天气的分析研究。本文根据位涡理论,选取2004年7月18日～20日的一次由中亚低涡造成的盛夏暴雨过程做个例分析,对位涡与新疆地区降水和暴雨的关系进行了初步研究。结果表明：对流层高层十位涡能较好地反映冷暖空气的活动及天气系统的演变特征,位涡场比温度场、高度场能更清楚地示踪冷空气,这为研究冷空气的活动,特别是冷空气在触发暴雨中的作用提供了新的思路;对流层低层湿位涡与降水的强弱有良好的对应关系,当包线陡立时,易导致倾斜涡度发展,出现降水：当湿位涡MPV〈0时,在θe线陡峭密集区内易出现暴雨。     

南支槽造成红河州强降雨的统计分析

利用1980～2009年MICAPS常规资料、Tlop图、红河州24小时雨量等资料对造成红河州强降雨的南支槽过程进行统计分析。分析结果表明:造成红河州强降雨的南支槽主要出现在10月至翌年5月,其中11月份南支槽造成红河州大范围强降雨的频率较高。南支槽影响红河州时,红河州中部及南部县市出现强降雨的频率高,最高在红河州的南部,北部县市出现强降雨频率较低。深南支槽与700 hPa急流配合,浅南支槽东移与700 hPa切变线配合,或与南海高压配合,易造成红河州全州性强降雨。