Malariological and sociological significance of ‘tanka’ and ‘beri’ in the Thar Desert, Western Rajasthan, India

Both ‘tanka’ and ‘beri’, the well-like structures made for storing drinking water fetched from distant places or superficially charged from the runoff water of the monsoon rains, are considered integral components of rural communities in the Thar Desert of Rajasthan State in north-western India.A. stephensi, the confirmed malaria vector in desert regions, breeds in these structures predominantly.     

Contested geographical imaginings of reunification: A case study of urban change in Leipzig

Geopolitics and city restructuring are typically regarded as separate scales and processes: the international and national versus the local. The local politics of urban change in an east German city in the period after reunification question this divide. The ‘pathways’ approach to post-socialist transitions is utilized to illustrate how reunification is contested as much in neighbourhood restructuring and actions in response to incoming capital and the dominance of western legalpolitical norms as it is in national or international discourses and practices. Assumed divisions between East and West, professional and lay, and local and national are questioned.     

The return of confiscated land and property in the new Länder: The process and its geographical implications

The unification of Germany has led to claims for the restitution of more than 2.47 million pieces of property confiscated under the auspices of either the Third Reich or the East German government. The legal and administrative taks of restitution is a huge challenge for the new Germany, with far-reaching implications for the country's social and economic fabric. This paper examines the nature and scale of restitution claims and how they are being settled across the five new German states (Bundesländer) and Berlin. It reveals a picture of considerable progress overall, but with substantial regional variations.     

Advocates in East Germany after 1949

The article deals with the development of the legal profession in the former German Democratic Republic after 1949 and in the five new Bundesländer since 3 October 1990, the day of German unification. It shows the transition from the traditional western concept of an independent bar to a profession bound by socialist ideals. The process of change before, and the development after, unification are highlighted from the viewpoints of the East German bar's perception of itself, the financial and social background and of the inequality in the provision of legal services within East Germany and in comparison to the West. The paper concludes that there are still significant differences in the provision of legal services in East and West Germany, and that the legal profession faces a formidable challenge to its self-regulating abilities.     

Partition, die Wende, and German unification

This paper provides a geographical context and overview of the critical steps leading to German unification on 3 October 1990. It examines the extent to which the whole process was typical of the sequence of events in other states that have been partitioned and have subsequently reunited, with particular reference to the so-called Wende in East Germany. This was a spontaneous, popular movement for internal reform which, spurred on in late 1989 by the impending collapse of the East German government and its protector, the Soviet Union, became a rallying point for German unification.     

Optical dating of Holocene sediments from a variety of geomorphic settings using single grains of quartz

This paper presents an improved method for the optical dating of Holocene sediments from a variety of geomorphic settings. We have measured the equivalent dose (D_e) in individual grains of quartz, using green laser light for optical stimulation, and have simulated the D_e distributions for multiple-grain ‘synthetic’ aliquots using the single-grain data. For 12 samples of known (independent) age, we show that application of a ‘minimum age model’ to the single-grain and ‘small’ (10-grain) aliquot D_e data provides the most accurate estimate of the burial dose for nine of the samples examined (3 aeolian, 5 fluvial, and 1 marine). The weighted mean D_e (as obtained using the ‘central age model’) gives rise to burial age overestimates of up to a factor of 10 for these nine samples, whether single grains, small aliquots, or ‘large’ (100-grain) aliquots are used. For the other three samples (two aeolian and one fluvial), application of either the minimum age model or the central age model to the single-grain, small aliquot, and large aliquot D_e data yields burial ages in accord with the independent age control. We infer that these three samples were well bleached at the time of deposition. These results show that heterogeneous bleaching of the optical dating signal is commonplace in nature, and that aeolian transport offers no guarantee that the sample will be well bleached at the time of deposition. We also show that grains sensitive to infrared (IR) stimulation can give rise to low D_e values, which will result in significant underestimation of the burial dose and, hence, of the age of deposition. We demonstrate that use of a modified single-aliquot regenerative-dose protocol incorporating IR stimulation prior to green light stimulation deals effectively with contamination by IR-sensitive grains. We conclude that application of the modified protocol to single grains or small aliquots of quartz, using the lowest D_e population to estimate the burial dose, is the best means of obtaining reliable ages for Holocene sediments from a wide range of depositional environments.     

Sustainable environmental resource utilisation: a case study of farmers’ ethnobotanical knowledge and rural change in Bungoma district, Kenya

This paper examines farmers’ ethnobotanical knowledge, innovation and rural change, and indicates one way in which indigenous technical knowledge complementing scientific knowledge may be documented for use by development planners and agencies. This paper firstly identifies plant species recognised as resources by farmers, and considers the value of these resources. Secondly, the paper documents and assesses the ethnobotanical knowledge associated with the utilisation of plant species, before turning to examine how plant resources are defined by use and culture. It also demonstrates that some components of ethnobotanical knowledge have potential for the sustainable development of plant species. The study shows that farmers have started to domesticate some of the ‘traditional’ plants, and new crops have been introduced associated with corresponding innovations in local agricultural systems. Since the farmers have a relatively strong tradition in natural resources conservation, this study suggests that it will be possible to introduce community-based gene banks linked to formal or government facilities. The paper demonstrates that it is important to combine and interweave ‘modern’ and indigenous knowledges to produce a more realistic and sensitive understanding and management of natural environmental resources for sustainable development.     

Effect of day length during plant development and caryopsis maturation on flowering and germination, in addition to temperature during dry storage and light during wetting, ofSchismus arabicus(Poaceae) in the Negev Desert, Israel

Schismus arabicusis a common annual with an ‘escape’ strategy of caryopsis dispersal and ‘opportunistic’ strategy of germination. It inhabits the Negev and Saharo-Arabian and Irano-Turanian phytogeographical regions. It displays a quantitative long-day response for flowering and a day length response in caryopses germinability. Germination in the dark was much higher than in light. The longer the period of light, from 0·5 h to continuous light, the lower the percentage of germination. The low percentage of germination, which is also regulated by temperature during dry storage, is important for the survival ofS. arabicusunder the unpredictable distribution and small amounts of rain in its extreme desert habitats.     

Political unification and regional consequences of German East-West migration

"The purpose of this paper is to evaluate the impact of the post-unification East to West transfer of the German population on levels of spatial concentration and deconcentration in Eastern and Western Germany. Using 1991 internal migration data, it was found that German East-to-West migration served to deconcentrate regional population in the West, but concentrate population in the East. Regional variations in German East-to-West migration during 1991 can be explained by the availability of employment and housing, a distance-minimisation effect, and the location of relatives and friends."     

The fluvial cycle at cold–warm–cold transitions in lowland regions: A refinement of theory

A previously established non-linear theory of river cyclicity as a response to climate change states that short phases of fluvial instability occur both at the transition from relatively warm (temperate) to cold (periglacial) and from relatively cold to warm periods. Such instability typically starts with vertical erosion, successively followed by sedimentary fill of the erosive scar. In spite of frequent confirmation of this theory by geomorphological reconstructions, a few problems arise. First, there are fewer incision phases than climatic transitions. Secondly, remnants of erosion at ‘cold–warm’ transitions are scarce, in contrast to obvious erosion relics at ‘warm–cold’ transitions. Furthermore, it appears that the incision style is strikingly different at both kinds of climatic transitions. Similarly, the long stable phases are also expressed in terms of different floodplain development in cold and warm periods. These arguments require a modification of the general non-linear theory.At the transition from relatively temperate to colder conditions, rivers transformed gradually from a regular, low-energy, single-channel course to a periodically high-energy, multi-channel type. The latter (braided) type is characterized by intense lateral movement, rather than by deep vertical erosion. This results in a well-expressed morphology of wide, extensive floodplains and terraces. In contrast, the linear and constrained, meandering channels incise with small width–depth ratio and build floodplains of limited lateral extent. Consequences are twofold: 1) the spatial limitation of the deeply incised, meandering valleys at the beginning of warm periods counts against their recognition; 2) relatively strong, lateral migration of the braided rivers removes most traces of previous (meandering) systems, which contrasts with the limited lateral activity of confined meandering channels. It means that in a ‘warm–cold–warm’ alternation generally only one phase of vertical erosion is preserved, the one that is caused by the high-energy, braided river at the start of the cold period.     

Impacts of changes in the flue-cured tobacco sector on farmers in Ontario, Canada

Impacts of the forces and processes of agricultural restructuring are described in this paper through an analysis of farmers’ ‘lived experience’ in the tobacco sector of Ontario, Canada. The paper argues that the political and economic changes in the 1980s fundamentally altered tobacco farming and the broader rural community. The analysis is based upon a survey of farmers and former farmers, and includes examples of individual case histories. The results show the ways in which farmers’ well-being was affected and provides insights into coping mechanisms.     

In-channel geomorphic complexity: The key to the dynamics of organic matter in large dryland rivers?

Large rivers are often considered to retain less organic material than smaller streams primarily because of a decrease in retentive structures. From our observations on the Barwon–Darling River, a semi-arid river in southeastern Australia, we suggest that geomorphic complexity plays a fundamental role in the retention of organic matter. The Barwon–Darling River has a ‘complex’ river channel cross-section with large inset benches being a prominent morphological feature within the channel. The importance of geomorphic complexity for retaining organic material is likely to be significant in dryland rivers. These rivers spend extended periods at low flow with infrequent large floods that inundate the floodplain. They do, however, experience more frequent within channel floods that inundate in-channel ‘bench’ features. In-channel geomorphic complexity and its ability to retain organic material, therefore, means that although the dominant lateral movements of organic material will still occur during large overbank flows, smaller ‘pulse’ inputs will occur with each in-channel rise and fall in water level. In dryland rivers, where large overbank flows may only occur every seven or more years, these small ‘pulse’ inputs of organic material may well be vital for the integrity of the system.This paper describes the contemporary complexity of a channel in a regulated and an unregulated reach of the Barwon–Darling and compares this with cross-sections surveyed in 1886. We show that flow regulation has greatly reduced channel complexity. We estimate the potential organic matter input to each bench level within the channel (using data collected under near natural riparian conditions) and measure the contemporary organic loads within the channel of the regulated and unregulated reach. This modelling suggests that the development of water resources has reduced the complexity of the channel in the regulated reach, resulting in a potential decrease in the retention of organic matter in this region of the river. The importance of this organic matter to the aquatic food web of the Barwon–Darling River is also demonstrated.     

Pastoral mobility, sedentarization and accessibility of health services in the northeast Badia of Jordan

The World Health Organisation (WHO) has attempted to achieve ‘Health for All by the Year 2000’. However, this aim has been limited in its success and significant levels of poor health remain. The WHO concede this and have revised their slogan: ‘Health for All in the Twenty-First Century’. One of the central problems has been social and geographical inequity of development and, importantly, that health services are inaccessible to large segments of the population in many developing countries. To this end, the Jordanian government has attempted to improve accessibility in rural communities by providing an extensive network of basic rural health clinics. However, a significant factor impeding this goal has been that much of the population is dispersed and that many practise pastoral nomadism. This paper reviews the extent to which rural clinical services have been made accessible to the nomadic and sedentarizing population of the northeast Jordan Badia.     

An unusual ‘blood rain’ over the Canary Islands (Spain). The storm of January 1999

An intense storm, including strong winds, a dust storm, ‘blood rain’ and heavy rains affected the Canary Archipelago between 5 and 10 January 1999, producing damage valued at 156 million euros. The present paper analyses the weather conditions and sedimentological features of the dust. The resulting data provide a possible explanation of palaeoclimatic conditions essential for the stabilization of sand dunes in the eastern parts of the Canary Islands.     

An approach for quantifying geomorphological impacts for EIA of transportation infrastructures: a case study in northern Spain

A methodological proposal for the assessment of impacts due to linear infrastructures such as motorways, railways, etc. is presented. The approach proposed includes a series of specific issues to be addressed for each geomorphological feature analysed—both ‘static’ and ‘dynamic’—as well as a series of steps to be followed in the process.Geomorphic characteristics potentially affected were initially identified on the basis of a conceptual activities/impacts model that helps to single out geomorphic impacts related to environmental concerns for the area. The following issues were addressed for each individual impact: nature of potential effects; indicators that can be used to measure impacts; criteria of ‘geomorphologic performance’; procedure for measurement/prediction of changes; translation of geomorphologic impacts into significant terms from the viewpoint of human concerns; possible mitigation and/or compensation measures.The procedure has been applied to a case study corresponding to a new motorway in the Basque Country, northern Spain. Geomorphological impacts considered in this analysis included: (1) consumable resources; (2) sites of geomorphological interest; (3) land units with high potential for use, high productivity or value for conservation; (4) visual landscape; (5) slope instability processes. The procedure has been designed for implementation in a Geographic Information System (GIS) environment. Details are given on the application of the method to each individual impact analysed and results are presented in both numerical and map form.Impacts assessed were initially expressed by means of heterogeneous magnitudes, depending on the geomorphological feature considered. Those geomorphological impacts were then translated into significant terms and homogeneous magnitudes. Integration was carried out on the basis of impact values thus obtained. Final integrated results were also expressed in numerical and map form.The method proposed enables comparison of alternatives as well as ‘prediction’ and assessment of impacts in terms directly related to geomorphic characteristics. It also facilitates the expression of those impacts in terms that allow integration with other types of environmental impacts.     

Reducing model complexity for explanation and prediction

Numerical models can be useful for explaining poorly understood phenomena or for reliable quantitative predictions. When modeling a multi-scale system, a ‘top-down’ approach—basing models on emergent variables and interactions, rather than explicitly on the much faster and smaller scale processes that give rise to them—facilitates both goals. Parameterizations representing emergent interactions range from highly simplified and abstracted to more quantitatively accurate. Empirically based large-scale parameterizations lead more reliably to accurate large-scale behavior than do parameterizations of much smaller scale processes. Conversely, purposefully simplified representations of model interactions can enhance a model's utility for explanation, clarifying the key feedbacks leading to an enigmatic behavior. For such potential insights to be relevant, the interactions in the model need to correspond to those in the ‘real’ system in some straightforward way. Such a correspondence usually holds for models constructed for predictive purposes, although this is not a requirement. The goals motivating a modeling endeavor help determine the most appropriate modeling strategies, as well as the most appropriate criteria for judging model usefulness.     

Restoration of palatable grasses: A study case in degraded rangelands of central Argentina

Restoration of palatable grasses on degraded rangelands dominated by unpalatable grasses in central Argentina is limited by low availability of seeds and safe sites for seedling establishment. The objective of our study was to determine how mechanical disturbance of unpalatable grasses (Stipa spp.) in combination with seeding of a palatable grass (Poa ligularis) influenced species composition in a degraded rangeland excluded from livestock grazing. In April 2001 10 blocks were uniformly distributed on a previously burned site dominated by unpalatable grasses, and treatments applied in 8 m×8 m experimental plots. Treatments were ‘disked and seeded’ and control (no disking, no seeding). Perennial plant cover and end-of-season standing crop, at species or species group level, were assessed in December 2002/2003 and in December 2004/2006, respectively. P. ligularis out-competed both tillers of unpalatable grasses that survived mechanical disturbance and seedlings of unpalatable grasses established after mechanical disturbance. The cover and end-of-season standing crop of unpalatable grasses was higher in the control than in the ‘disked and seeded’ treatment, whereas the cover and end-of-season standing crop of P. ligularis was higher in the latter than in the former treatment. Our results suggest that a rapid transition from a state dominated by unpalatable grasses to a state dominated by palatable grasses can be achieved by mechanical disturbance of unpalatable grasses in combination with seeding of palatable grasses in semiarid rangelands of central Argentina.     

Developing a workable model of housing need: Applying geographical concepts and techniques to a problem of public policy

Governments increasingly seek to target public sector welfare expenditures to those most in need. In Australia, attention has increasingly focussed on the question of housing need: its conceptualisation, measurement, application to policy and expression across space. This paper reports on work undertaken by geographers for the Government of South Australia on the development of a workable model of housing need as a means of establishing priorities for public sector expenditure. The paper considers the problem of housing need and the challenges of developing and applying the multi-faceted concepts embedded within the notion of ‘need’.     

A 10-Year Study on Techniques for Vegetation Restoration in a Desertified Salt Lake Area

Vegetation restoration is one of the most common and effective ways to combat desertification and prevent adjacent areas from sand encroachment in many of the desertified regions of the world. However, vegetation restoration in desertified regions is very difficult because of low rainfall, the mobile ground surface, and cost. An effective, low-cost method of afforestation is urgently required. To determine such a method, a 10-year study was carried out in the Jilantai Salt Lake area. Five different afforestation areas were established: a ‘comparison area,’ a ‘land enclosure area,’ a ‘land enclosure + irrigation area,’ a ‘leveled-afforestation area’ (the dune areas were leveled and then planted with seedlings with added irrigation), and a ‘protected afforestation area’ (the dune areas were planted with seedlings, and the surviving natural vegetation was protected as much as possible). Vegetation-related parameters (survival rate, height, trunk diameter, coverage, canopy size, and density) and environment-related factors (relative humidity, wind velocity, and amount of sand encroachment) were measured by standard methods. Results show that the protected afforestation method had the following advantages: (1) the survival rate was higher for seedlings planted in the protected afforestation area than in the leveled afforestation area; (2) vigor (height, trunk diameter, coverage, and canopy size) was better in seedlings planted in the protected afforestation area than in the leveled afforestation area, especially in the beginning period of revegetation; (3) coverage (of individual species, of all planted vegetation, and of all vegetation) was larger in the protected afforestation area than in the leveled afforestation area; (4) density of naturally germinated plant species was higher in the protected afforestation area than in the other areas, showing that the protected afforestation method provided a suitable growing environment not only for planted species but also for naturally growing species; (5) in the protected vegetation area, relative humidity of air increased and wind velocity was greatly reduced; (6) after the establishment of vegetation by the protected afforestation method, sand encroachment into the salt lake area was significantly reduced. These results suggest that protected afforestation is an effective method of vegetation rehabilitation that has the potential not only to be applied to arid lands in China but also to desertified areas throughout the world; (7) cost-effective calculation shows that the leveled afforestation area costs much more than other areas.