The Influence of Population Density on the Mating System of Thalassoma pavo, a Protogynous Mediterranean Labrid Fish

Abstract. The aim of the present study is to determine the factor balancing the reproductive polymorphism obSérved in Thalassoma pavo , a Méditerranean labrid fish that shows two sexually distinct types of males: small gonochoristic males and large sex-changed males. Large males defend specific mating sites above which females come to spawn. In such a mating system (pair spawning performed only by large territorial males), small males almost never get the opportunity to spawn. In a similar situation, Thalassoma bifasciatum , a coral reef species, shows a change of its mating system due to the influence of population density. As the population density grows, the proportion of small males in the population increases until they are numerous enough to take over a mating site where they perform group spawns. Concerning Thalassoma pavo , neither the group spawning behavior nor any other factor has ever been described to explain the maintenance of the two types of males.     

Reproductive ecology of the mudskipper Boleophthalmus pectinirostris

The reproductive ecology of the mudskipper Boleophthalmus pectinirostris was investigated during the spawning season in the Funing Bay, Fujian, China. The fish burrows were basically Y-shaped and had two openings onto the mudflats. Part of the intersection at the center of the burrow was dilated to form a "spawning chamber". The dissolved oxygen concentrations (0.40~0.65 mg/dm3)of water 15 cm deep inside the burrows were much lower than those (5.96~6.19 mg/dm3) of intertidal pool water. Water temperatures inside the burrows were much lower than those of intertidal pools. Field investigations indicated that eggs were laid on the inner wall and ceiling of the spawning chamber by means of filamentous attachments, and a male stayed inside the burrows to guard it. Field investigations also suggested that fish of both sexes constructed mud burrows by themselves but that the spawning chamber was made only in the male burrow. The male attracted a female to his burrow for mating and spawning. There was no water in the spawning chamber, and thus the eggs were exposed to the air in the chamber. Changes in spawning readiness and gonadosomatic index indicated that synchronization of spawning was related to the semi-lunar periodicity, and this is the first report of this relationship in the mudskippers.     

Spawning behaviour of snapper,Chrysophrys auratus,in captivity (note)

Spawning of snapper was observed in the public aquarium at Napier. Spawning males were characterised by a grey coloration and spawning females were the typical silvery‐pink colour. On four occasions spawning behaviour activity involved several males and one female and on one occasion it initially involved one male and one female, although other males joined in the spawning act. At each spawning event the female swam vertically towards the surface closely pursued by males. Eggs and sperms were released near the surface.     

Activity budgets of New Zealand fur seals Arctocephalus forsteri during the breeding season

The activity budgets of territorial males, adult females, pups, and yearlings of the New Zealand fur seal Arctocephalus forsteri (Lesson, 1828) on Taumaka, Open Bay Islands, Westland, New Zealand (43° 52 S, 168° 53′ E) from 18 November 1974 to 30 January 1975 are described. Territorial males spent an average of 74.4% of their time lying down; 13.5% in a state of alertness; 4.8% on intrasexual and intersexual activities combined; and 7.3% on miscellaneous activities, including grooming, walking, and swimming. Equivalent figures for adult females, pups, and yearlings were: lying down (62.8%, 70.1%, and 66.6% respectively); alertness (4.9%, 2.8%, 6.8%); intrasexual and intersexual activities (1.1%, females only); miscellaneous (21%; 16%; 26.5%); female‐pup interactions (11%; 11.1%).

The activity budgets of all the seal classes changed as the breeding season progressed. Males spent more time alert early in the season when they were establishing and defending territories and procuring females. Intrasexual behaviour was prominent only in November and early December, whereas intersexual behaviour became more conspicuous during December, when females were in post‐partum oestrus. Females displayed little interest in intrasexual activity. Interactions with males ceased after copulation. Swimming was a prominent activity for females, as was suckling once pups were present. During the first few weeks of life pups mostly slept and suckled. Yearlings were present on the rookery only until 2 December, when they were rejected by females with new pups. Their predominant activity, when not lying down, was swimming (17.2%).     

Fecundity and spawning of the Atlantic horseshoe crab, Limulus polyphemus, in Pleasant Bay, Cape Cod, Massachusetts, USA

This study provided the first comprehensive analysis of Atlantic horseshoe crab (Limulus polyphemus) fecundity. Limulus appear to be a determinate spawner, maturing all eggs for the breeding season before spawning begins. On average, larger females held a larger number of eggs (63,500) than smaller females (14,500). By the end of the breeding season there was an average of 11,600 mature eggs per female left undeposited, regardless of female size. Larger females laid a higher percentage of the eggs they contained. Thus they not only contain more eggs, but are more effective at laying them as well. Size of spawning females ranged from about 185–300 mm prosomal width, with by far the highest concentration in the mid‐size ranges. Although on an individual basis large females carry and lay the greatest number of eggs, mid‐size crabs as a group contributed more to the horseshoe crab population in Pleasant Bay because they were more plentiful (net fecundity was highest for mid‐size crabs). These results have implications for the management of this important species, which is harvested for bait, scientific, and biomedical uses. Incorporation of these results into models and other management tools can help predict growth rates, effects of size‐selective harvest, reproductive value, and stable stage distribution of populations.     

Effect of reproductive state and sex on movement and food consumption of western rock lobster (Panulirus cygnus) in a tank environment

The catchability of western rock lobsters (Panulirus cygnus) during the spawning season (October and November) may be affected by their reproductive state. In this study, movement and food consumption of males and females of different reproductive states held in laboratory tanks were measured as proxies for catchability. Density of lobsters was found to influence both movement and food consumption. Solitary animals and, to a lesser extent, two lobsters per tank, were more sedentary and consumed significantly less food than animals at a density of three or four specimens per tank. Tests using three animals per tank confirmed that mature, unmated, and ovigerous females carrying early stage eggs moved more frequently away from their shelters than males or females carrying late stage eggs (P < 0.0001, d.f. = 3). Further, unmated females and females with early stage eggs recorded significantly higher food consumption (P < 0.0061, d.f. = 3) compared with males or females carrying late stage eggs. The greater time spent away from shelter and also food consumption make unmated females and females with early stage eggs likely to be more catchable than males or females with late stage eggs. As catchability is commonly used to obtain population estimates from survey data, these results have implications for surveys which use catch rates of breeding animals as indicators of egg production.     

曼氏无针乌贼(Sepiella japonica)繁殖期行为谱特征的研究

自然海域中曼氏无针乌贼产卵亲体性成熟提前和小型化现象明显，这可能是一种适应性进化，人工干预背景下曼氏无针乌贼繁殖期行为的动态变化值得关注。2020年4-6月室内采用聚焦个体扫描法和定点连续记录法分别观察和记录了曼氏无针乌贼繁殖期的行为活动，并按其生活习性和行为的生物学功能等进行系统化分类，构建了繁殖期行为谱。结果表明，曼氏无针乌贼繁殖期行为谱主要包括三大类12种行为：（1）游泳行为主要分为前进和后退，繁殖期的雌性多处于静潜水底或静浮水中的状态；（2）捕食行为主要分为发现、定位、捕捉和咀嚼等系列动作，曼氏无针乌贼能够快速感知周围17.0-36.0 cm范围内的饵料，捕捉的有效距离为8.0-22.0 cm，能在2.0-10.0 s内完成对饵料的高效捕获；（3）繁殖行为复杂，主要分为求偶、伴游、交配、产卵等，其中求偶行为体现在雄性对雌性的自我展示、追逐配对和争斗护卫等过程，雄性在争斗护卫和伴游过程中的护雌行为尤为激烈。曼氏无针乌贼交配时采用"头对头"的方式，平均交配持续时间42.9 s。曼氏无针乌贼对产卵附着基有选择性且偏好于最初的附卵物，卵群对雌性产卵行为有诱导和刺激作用，每次产卵到附卵过程平均用时108.6 s。曼氏无针乌贼繁殖期行为谱特征的研究可为后续曼氏无针乌贼行为机制和基于全生活史的资源保护等方面提供理论依据。     

人工管道诱导大弹涂鱼产卵研究

报道了人工制作的陶瓷管道诱导大弹涂鱼Boleophthalmus pectinirostris产卵的研究结果，未经激素催熟的亲鱼放入产卵池内7-12d未见产卵，经一次激素注射催熟的亲鱼放入产卵池内第3天开始酱产卵和受精，入池后5d未能产卵雌鱼的卵母细胞开始退化吸收，雌鱼不仅在管道内产卵，而且也将卵产在管道外，池底和池壁，产卵时间集中在下半夜的02：00-04：00，不同产卵池中管道的产卵率差别很大，卵子粘附在管道不同部位的数量和受精率均不相同，强迫配对的亲鱼虽有产卵，但卵子不受精。     

Annual gametogenesis and reproductive effort of the limpet <Emphasis Type="Italic">Cellana grata</Emphasis> (Gould, 1859) (Gastropoda: Nacellidae) in a rocky intertidal beach at Ulleungdo Island off the east coast of Korea

Widely distributed from the northern coast of Vietnam to the northern Japan, the limpet Cellana grata (Gould, 1859) occurs commonly on the south and east coasts of Korea. Despite their wide distribution range, few studies have investigated the annual gametogenesis and reproductive effort of C. grata. In an attempt to understand the reproductive physiology of the limpet, we investigated the annual gametogenesis and reproductive effort of C. grata from Ulleungdo Island off the east coast of Korea. Histology revealed that the gonial mitosis commenced in January, as the female exhibited small oogonia (10–40 μm) in the follicle. From March to June, the oocyte size increased dramatically, and fully mature eggs (110–170 μm in diameter) appeared in early summer. First spawning males and females were observed in July, as the surface seawater temperature (SST) reached 22.1°C. The spawning male and females could be observed until the end of December. Gonad somatic index (GSI), a ratio of gonad mass to the total tissue weight, of the male ranged from 0.6 (April) to 17.9 (July), while the female GSI varied from 1.0 (February) to 18.3 (July). GSI of male and female declined rapidly from July to August, suggesting that the major purse of the spawning at the study site was between July and August. Our study suggested that the commercial catch of C. grata during July and August must be suspended at Ulleungdo Island, in order to protect the spawning limpets, which enhances C. grata recruitment and the population.     

Surflan and oryzalin impair reproduction in the teleost medaka (Oryzias latipes)

We conducted studies to determine if the xenoestrogens Surflan and its active ingredient oryzalin, affect indices of reproductive fitness in medaka (Oryzias latipes). Oryzalin (0.5, 0.25mg/l) or Surflan (2.0 microl/l) and oryzalin (0.5mg/l) significantly increased the mean number of non-fertilized eggs produced by treated females paired with untreated males, or by untreated females paired with treated males. Oryzalin (1.0, 0.5, 0.25mg/l) and Surflan (3.8, 2.0, 1.0 microl/l) significantly affected the time to hatch of eggs from treated females paired with untreated males, and from untreated females paired with treated males. Surflan (3.8, 2.0, 1.0 microl/l) induced intersex lesions in 80-100% of males. Oryzalin-exposed males exhibited a significant increase in the incidence of necrotic spermatids and necrotic spermatogonia, while oryzalin-exposed females had significantly fewer immature oocytes and an increase in the occurrence of hyperplastic ovaries. Our results indicate that Surflan and oryzalin affect both reproduction and gonadal histology in male and female medaka.     

Complementary (secondary) metabolites in a soft coral: sex-specific variability, inter-clonal variability, and competition

Sex‐specific interactions involving competition for space between the dioecious alcyonacean soft coral Sarcophyton glaucum and the scleractinian coral Acropora robusta were assessed experimentally on Bald Rock, central region of the Great Barrier Reef. To examine this, plus inter‐clonal responses, one male colony of S. glaucum, known to produce sarcophytoxide as its predominant complementary (secondary) metabolite, was sectioned, producing 10 clones. The same was done for a female colony. These two sets of clones were then relocated to grids and placed in contact with Acropora clones. Relocated and non‐relocated controls were also monitored. High levels of tissue necrosis were observed in the hard coral under contact conditions with both the male and female clones after 20 days. The development of a protective polysaccharide layer in the alcyonacean was also observed. Differences observed in the concentrations of complementary metabolites within the two different S. glaucum colonies were related to sex. Both under competition and non‐competition conditions, females exhibited significantly higher concentrations of sarcophytoxide than males, and this increased with time. Fatty ester concentration was also higher in females than males, varying significantly through time, and falling dramatically just after spawning. Fatty ester concentrations decreased linearly through time in the male clones. When involved in competition for space, females possessed higher concentrations of fatty esters than males, both at the site of contact and in non‐contact sites, again, decreasing after spawning. No significant changes in sarcophytoxide levels were noted in the parental colonies, but such changes were observed in fatty esters, with the female producing higher concentrations until after spawning. The use of these two variates in the form of a ratio (sarcophytoxide concentration:fatty ester concentration) yielded a variable Rho (ρ) which was a more sensitive indicator of biochemical change than either of its components alone. These two sets of compounds appeared to have a negative association through time and varied highly significantly between sexes. The diterpene sarcophytoxide may be considered an allelopathic or stress metabolite, while the lipids act as energy storage metabolites.     

Gonadal cycle of the dwarf oyster Ostreola stentina from the south of the Gulf of Hammamet on the eastern coast of Tunisia

The reproductive cycle of the dwarf oyster Ostreola stentina (Payraudeau 1826) at Monastir in the south of the Gulf of Hammamet on the east coast of Tunisia was studied using condition indices and histological techniques. The species was shown to be a protandric hermaphrodite. Whereas males dominated the small shell length categories (12.45–34.99 mm), females (21.00–47.16 mm) and hermaphroditic individuals (30.00–57.95 mm) become more predominant with increasing size, suggesting that individuals may undergo protandric development. The overall male to female ratio was 1.0:1.7. Gametogenic development begins in February–March for females and in September for males, and spawning occurs during April and July for females and December and July for males. There was a clear relationship between the gonadal condition index and gametogenic stage for both sexes. Values increased from zero in their early stage of development and peaked during ripe and spawning stages, before decreasing in the spent stage. However, the meat condition index did not show any statistical differences between gametogenic stages.     

罗氏沼虾人工繁殖期的占区与雌雄配对行为的研究

雄性罗氏沼虾对设置的人工巢穴具明显的占区本能,占区领域主要由雄虾个体大小决定。本实验中占区的最小安全领域是一个直径约为３５ｃｍ的立体空间,雄性占区后绝不允许同性入内,对性腺未成熟之雌虾亦加拒绝。但能稳定接纳１尾以上性腺已完全成熟、即将蜕壳的雌虾并与其配对,最多时１尾雄虾可稳定与８～１０尾这样的雌虾配对。在占区和配对过程中,虾的视觉起重要作用。人工繁殖时,捕虾作业不会对占区和雌雄配对产生不利影响。一昼夜１尾雄虾在人工巢穴中最多能与２０尾雌虾交配。     

成体文昌鱼实验室培养产卵、排精及其受精卵早期发育的观察

文昌鱼(Branchiostoma belcheri tsingtauense)属于脊索动物门(Chordata)头索动物亚门(Cephalochordata)文昌鱼科(Branchiostomidae),为国家二级保护动物。据认为(Carrol,1988),文昌鱼是和脊椎动物亲缘关系最近的现存无脊椎动物,在系统演化上,它介于无脊椎动物和脊椎动物之间,是研究脊椎动物起源的珍贵材料。此外,文昌鱼体内蛋白含量高达70%,并含有丰富的碘、铁和磷,脂肪含量低(Svetashev et al.,1994),在我国福建省和东南亚地区被视为美味佳肴。但是,近年来由于生存环境的改变和环境污染,文昌鱼种群在世界各海区都在减少(方永强,1987;Nishikawa,1992)。为保护这一具有重要学术意义和一定经济价值的濒危动物,开展全人工养殖的研究是十分必要和急需的。 杜琦等(1990)以及Wu等(1994)曾先后进行过文昌鱼人工培育的研究,取得了一些成果,目前,我们又开展了实验室培养文昌鱼的繁殖生物学研究。有关天然海区文昌鱼的产卵、排精及其受精卵胚胎发育已有大量描述(Wickstead,1975;金德祥,1964),但是,实验室培养文昌鱼的产卵、排精及其受精卵早期胚胎发育观察却未见报道。通过研究发现：(1)文昌鱼只有在雌、雄同时存在时才能产卵、排精,而雌、雄分开后都不产卵排精,说明文昌鱼产卵、排精很可能受性外激素的控制;(2)实验室培养的文昌鱼受精卵能正常发育,并形成正常幼虫。     

东方扁虾繁殖生物学特征的调查研究

对雌雄异体受精的东方扁虾的性腺发育，交配，排卵，抑卵孵育及孵化等繁殖习性进行了初步调研，同时也对闽南海区东方扁虾若干繁殖生物学参数进行了研究，结果表明：东方扁虾抱卵季节为3月初至10月中旬，高峰期是3月中锂至4月中锂，东方扁虾头甲长与体长之间的关系显示了雌雄二态现象，这一现象明显地与产卵特征相关联，抑卵雌虾的抑卵量（N）与体长呈曲线相关：N＝12.039(体长）^1.4813(r^2=0.7742)，东方扁虾在一年内可多次排卵，抱卵，卵径平均范围为0.96-1.29mm,卵重平均范围为0.575-1.000mg,卵径和个卵重都随胚胎发育的进展而增大。     

Reproductive biology of Mustelus lenticulatus from Kaikoura and Nelson

Mustelus lenticulatus is a non‐placental ovoviviparous shark with a gestation period of about 11 months. Young are born at a total length of 30–32 cm from September to December. Copulation, and ovulation of a further set of eggs, rapidly follows parturition. Fecundity increases with the length of the female; the most eggs found in one female was 24; the mean for all females was 10.73.

Males mature at about 85 cm total length and females at 95 cm at Kaikoura. Nelson males probably mature at a smaller size than do Kaikoura males. Nelson females mature at about 85 cm. Maximum observed lengths were 137 cm for females and 115 cm for males.     

中国对虾异常交配现象的观察

于1989年11月9日—12月10日,在山东莱州市东方红盐场养殖分场亲虾越冬室内,对35尾异常交配雌对虾进行了观察研究。结果表明,异常交配行为能引起对虾各种疾病,导致亲虾群体质量下降、数量减少。提出在人工越冬亲虾交配季节,应及时将已交配的雌虾选出单独培养,同时在越冬的早期水温较高时,不宜在已交配雌虾池内搭配雄虾。     

Population biology of Ischyrocerus commensalis,a crab‐associated amphipod,in the Southern Barents Sea: a multi‐annual summer study

Population biology of the amphipod Ischyrocerus commensalis Chevreux, 1900, a facultative commensal of the red king crab Paralithodes camtschaticus (Tilesius, 1815), is here described on samples collected during summers 2005–2009 in Dalnezelenetskaya Bay (Southern Barents Sea, Russia). The studied features included infestation indices, size composition, morphometric, and reproductive parameters of the summer generation. During the studied period, prevalence and mean number of I. commensalis per host were 34.4% and 54.4 ± 3.3 individuals, respectively. The majority of amphipods were found on the host mouth parts, limbs, and gills. The amphipod sex‐ratio was significantly biased towards females (F:M = 1.36:1). The size frequency distributions observed in July and August were similar but in July the proportion of the smallest amphipods (<2.1 mm body length) was two times higher than that in August. All the amphipods with body length >5.1 mm were males or females. Length–weight relationships in female and male amphipods differed significantly, suggesting that females were heavier than the same‐sized males. The females carrying eggs in their brood pouches were the most abundant groups (54.8% in July 2009 and 51.6% in August 2005–2008). The minimal body length of a female which had released juveniles was 7.0 mm in July and 6.2 mm in August. The size at 50% maturity of I. commensalis females was estimated to be 6.58 mm. The number of eggs laid is positively linearly correlated with the size of a female. The proportion of the females with eggs in the latest developmental stage in July was 10 times higher than in August. The differences of biological features in symbiotic amphipods between the July and August may be explained by more intensive reproduction effort in the earlier month.     

Metridia pacifica in Dabob Bay, Washington: The diatom effect and the discrepancy between high abundance and low egg production rates

Information on life cycle strategies and reproductive parameters of Metridia pacifica is scarce, despite its importance in the zooplankton of the subarctic Pacific. In many regions it occurs in high abundance, but reproductive rates, when reported, are usually low. This discrepancy was studied in Dabob Bay, Washington, USA, in the context of an investigation of the effect of diatom blooms on the reproductive success of copepod grazers.In situ egg production rates of M. pacifica were measured in spring and mid-summer with standard methods (multi-wells) and a new incubation chamber (spawning towers) that separates the spawning female from its eggs and allows the eggs to develop undisturbed. Many females did not produce eggs, possibly due to a high fraction of immature individuals. Egg production rates were variable, but clutch sizes were higher in spawning towers, and estimates of female egg cannibalism revealed that females consume many eggs shortly after their release. Thus, a separation of females and eggs is mandatory for accurate measurements of M. pacifica egg production rates. The maximum clutch sizes recorded in our study were comparable to measurements for other calanoids. However, unviable eggs were a large fraction of those spawned, independent of incubation method, especially in late winter and early spring. In order to assess whether the diatom effect may be responsible for low viability of embryos and nauplii, we also measured in situ grazing. Adult females were omnivorous, but they ingested some diatoms that rank among the strongest anti-mitotic toxin producers known so far. Although M. pacifica’s vertical migration behavior suggests opportunistic feeding on abundant food during their short stay in the phytoplankton-rich surface, they often ignored the food items that contributed most to microplankton carbon concentrations. Thus, their feeding strategy remains ambiguous. Due to severe reproductive failure early in the season, recruitment was impaired in spring, while the population increased, reaching high abundance in mid-summer when reproductive output was low. While advection and interannual variability in bloom conditions might compensate for the losses described here, the paradox of high Metridia abundance versus low reproductive success still requires further investigation, and methodological constraints need to be ruled out in future studies.