Connecting historical and contemporary small-area geography in Britain: The creation of digital boundary data for 1971 and 1981 census

This paper reports on the outcome from a project that has developed a GISbased procedure to capture digital boundaries for the small spatial units used in the British Population Census in 1981, and for the geographically comparable units connecting back with the previous enumeration in 1971. 1981 census geography was originally recorded as linear and textual annotations on paper base maps that were subsequently microfilmed. Four methods involving varying degrees of automation for capturing digital representations of these census units from the scanned microfilm imagery are evaluated. Details presented are in the context of British census geography before digital capture of small census units became routine, but the evaluation of the methods and the final procedure cover issues that are generally applicable in situations where the capture of historical mapping is attempted.     

基于居民点密度的人口密度空间化

提出了一种基于居民点密度的人口密度空间化方法。以江苏省人口数据空间化为例,在采用核密度估计法得到江苏省镇(乡、街道)居民点密度后,运用基于居民点密度的人口密度空间化计算公式获得江苏省1 000m×1 000m的人口密度格网图,结果表明:江苏省人口分布的热点地区正是在建的三大都市圈(苏锡常都市圈、南京都市圈和徐州都市圈),其中苏锡常都市圈的人口分布呈现各向异性,而南京和徐州都市圈的人口分布则表现为各向同性;人口密度不仅取决于居民点密度,还与平均每个居民点的人口数密切相关,居民点密度大的区域的人口密度不一定大,居民点密度小的区域的人口密度也不一定小。     

On the Components of Indigenous Population Change

The 2001 census count of Indigenous Australians produced an intercensal change in numbers that cannot be explained by demographic processes alone. Using census and vital registration data, this paper unravels the components of such change and provides new insight into Indigenous population dynamics. In particular, it establishes the first estimates of proximate determinants of fertility, and extends mortality analysis by examining the components of low Indigenous life expectancy. Results show that demographic factors account for only 69 per cent of population change. Of these components, national Indigenous fertility is found to be below replacement level, while lack of convergence between Indigenous and non-Indigenous mortality remains. As Indigenous socio-economic circumstances are spatially diverse, the paper also explores the geography of demographic processes using data for 36 ATSIC regions and capital city/balance of State classifications. This reveals continued high fertility across parts of north Australia and an indication that mortality levels are associated with degree of urban residence.     

国外赛博地理学研究进展

赛博地理学是研究计算机通讯网络（尤其是互联网，万维网及其他存在于计算机屏幕以外的电子“版图”）－即赛博空间－的空间特征。研究对象包括善于从物理基础设施，信息流动，新的赛博空间社区的人口统计到对这些新的数字空间的感知及可视化研究等一系列地理现象。重点是找出信息。空间与人类行为之间的关系，重新定义地理学中善于距离，尺度及区域等基本概念。同时在概念框架。方法学及现场初中的基础上开辟新的地理学研究领域。赛博空间帛图综合利用了地理学，制图学，社会学，文化学，计算机通讯，信息可视化，文学理论及认知心理学等领域的研究成果及理论。为我们提供了一个理解赛博空间的外观及其与社会相互作用的工具，最后，对 在进行的赛博地理研究项目作了介绍。     

Some Demographic and Geographic Aspects of Community Colleges

Abstract

In an attempt to apply the tools and concepts of geography to the study of higher education in the United States, some pertinent findings of the 1970 census are summarized and the spatial distribution of certain aspects of the two-year public colleges is explored. Three ratios calculated from the 1973 listing of junior colleges and from census data are mapped: average enrollment per public two-year college, ratio of public two-year colleges to population, and percentage of the population enrolled in such colleges. The maps appear to express a regionality in community college development; the need for more regional studies is emphasized and questions raised. A major conclusion is that the very states that already have the most community colleges are the ones in which continued growth in number of colleges is most likely.     

Estimating the Accuracy of Geographic Variation in Indigenous Population Counts

The ABS 2006 Post-Enumeration Survey was extended to include a sample of localities from the whole of Australia, thereby providing an estimate of census net undercount reflective of the enumeration in remote Indigenous settlements for the first time. The results revealed substantial undercounting of the Indigenous population in certain jurisdictions. At the same time, census counts in many locations were substantially higher than demographic factors could account for. The analytical and policy issues that arise from this revolve around a simple question: what credence can we give to observed spatial patterns of Indigenous population change? This paper seeks to provide an answer by establishing the spatial relationship between population change and net migration at the small area level. This reveals the detailed geography of census undercount and ‘overcount’ with the former common in remote areas and the latter most evident in regional towns and cities. The findings raise important policy issues about the proper interpretation of Indigenous population change data and the nature of estimates used to determine fiscal resourcing for Indigenous policies and programs.     

A Proposed Method for Spatial Data Disaggregation and Interpolation

The Model for External Reliance of Localities in (MERLIN) Coastal Management Zones is a proposed solution to allow scaling of variables to smaller, nested geographies. Using a principal components analysis and data normalization techniques, smaller scale data relationships are linked to data relationships within larger geographies and scaling factors are developed for each. In using these relationships, MERLIN will derive a set of variables scaled to a desired geography representing the attributes of the population present. The concept driving MERLIN's development is that correlations between variables at a specific location and level of geography can be tested and applied to other scales for interpolations. This flexibility and relative simplicity of calculation make MERLIN a valuable tool in many types of social research and for data interpolation. In a pilot study, the MERLIN model is applied to counties along the Gulf Coast of Florida to create a well-being index at the census tract level. Results reveal a landscape that better accounts for the localized patterns of values situated within a larger geographic unit.     

基于镇域尺度的江苏省人口分布空间格局演变

基于2000年、2010年人口普查乡镇（街道）数据,运用探索性空间数据分析、半变异函数等方法,分析江苏省人口分布的时空分异特征,并揭示其空间演化机理。结果表明：① 江苏省人口分布呈现较大的空间差异,全省层面上呈现南北人口密度高于中部的“凹”字型结构,城乡层面上呈现街道人口密度高于乡镇的“城乡二元”结构,以及沿江地区明显的“核心边缘”结构;② 研究期内江苏省人口分布的空间不均衡性和集聚性呈增强之势,长江以北镇域的人口密度大多降低而以南普遍增加,苏锡常、南京、徐州三大都市圈的人口集聚能力进一步提升,沿江地区成为全省规模最大的高密度人口连绵区;③ 空间关联作用是引起江苏省人口分布格局变化的空间机理,而政策、区位、经济与自然环境等因素是造成江苏人口格局变化的主要动力。     

Spatial Scale and the Geography of Tobacco Smoking in New Zealand: A Multilevel Perspective

Smoking in New Zealand is more common in deprived areas and in areas with a significant Maori population. Despite its status as a major health problem there has been little work investigating this apparent geography of smoking Data from the 1996 Census is used to construct a multilevel ‘proportions‐as‐responses’ model of smoking prevalence. This enables an exploration of the geography of smoking at different spatial scales. Levels within the model distinguish contextual variation between local authorities, census area units and meshblocks. Particular account is taken of the influence of deprivation and ethnicity on smoking. Results confirm the importance of ethnicity and deprivation and indicate that cross‐level interaction between meshblock and census area unit measures is significant. They also challenge crude stereotypes about the apparent geography of smoking and suggest that, while levels of smoking may be high in parts of North Island, they are less high than might be expected given the socio‐demographic composition of the areas concerned. Conversely, smoking is more prevalent than expected in parts of South Island. The paper notes the health policy implications of these emergent geographies.     

Mental Mapping: A Lesson That Creates Itself

Abstract

Mental image and place-preference maps of college students in Florida were created through a two-part lesson. The patterns revealed by these maps were linked to students' life experiences, census data on migration and income, and similar studies conducted in other states. Students prefer states with established migration links to Florida and better income/job opportunities. Because the maps could not be created without their input, students were wholly engaged in a lesson that uses concepts in population geography and cartography to fulfill several national geography standards.     

Economic Opportunities and Internal Migration: A Case Study of Guangdong Province,China*

Economic opportunities are considered a primary determinant of human migration, but their explanatory power in Communist China has been limited because of strong government intervention in controlling migration and in planned population transfers. Since the late 1970s, however, economic reform has brought about changes in China's regional economies and generated new push and pull forces for migration, and the relaxation of migration restrictions has created greater opportunities for nongovernment-induced migration. Using data primarily from the 1990 census, I review the spatial patterns of migration and the characteristics of the new migrants. A case study of Guangdong Province reveals that its attractiveness to migrants from other provinces and its intra-provincial migration patterns are attributable to differentials in per capita output and foreign investment. The findings support the argument that China has entered a new era of migration in which present and expected economic opportunities are important explanations for the volume and directions of population movement.     

Patterns of Racial Diversity and Segregation in the United States: 1990–2010

The growing ethnic and racial diversity of the United States is evident at all spatial scales. One of the striking features of this new mixture of peoples, however, is that this new diversity often occurs in tandem with racial concentration. This article surveys these new geographies from four points of view: the nation as a whole, states, large metropolitan areas, and neighborhoods. The analysis at each scale relies on a new taxonomy of racial composition that simultaneously appraises both diversity and the lack thereof (Holloway, Wright, and Ellis 2012). Urban analysis often posits neighborhood racial segregation and diversity as either endpoints on a continuum of racial dominance or mirror images of one another. We disturb that perspective and stress that segregation and diversity must be jointly understood—they are necessarily related, although not as inevitable binary opposites. Using census data from 1990, 2000, and 2010, the research points to how patterns of racial diversity and dominance interact across varying spatial scales. This investigation helps answer some basic questions about the changing geographies of racialized groups, setting the stage for the following articles that explore the relationship between geography and the participation of underrepresented groups in higher education.     

中国人口地理研究进展

1978年以来是中国人口地理学复兴和发展时期。中国人口地理学工作者消化吸收西方经典人口学理论,讨论中国人口容量问题,认识到中国人口总量即将达到增长极限,强调控制人口总量、努力发展生产和转变生存方式是解决人口问题的关键。针对资源短缺和环境污染问题,提出了创建第四产业,实施环境抚育,推动劳动力就业,降低环境污染的策略。针对民生问题,提出深入开展微观社会调查,主动再造跨尺度的社区制度,推进对人口行为的尺度综合和文化自觉。针对中国人口快速转变和人口结构问题,提出了人口均衡发展理论。针对国土空间开发格局问题,提出了区域发展均衡模型,强调通过产业转移、人口流动、转移支付等手段,形成相对均衡的区域发展格局。针对区域人口发展不平衡问题,提出了人口发展功能分区指标和分区模型,初步实现了视野综合化、指标定量化、分析模型化,将人口地理学研究推向新高度。未来中国人口地理学研究,一要围绕人口普查和人口业务数据库,建设分布式人口地理信息系统,推动人口专题数据和人口计量模型共享,巩固和发展人口地理学定量化研究之特色;二要加强不同尺度的社区微观调查,主动调控人口快速转变情景下的社区行为,提高对人口地理学定量研究结果的理解和解释;三要加强国际人口情报交流,把握各国人口演化趋势,从经济全球化的分工合作体系的视角,合理配置中国劳动力资源和人才资源。中国人口地理学应坚持走跨学科的发展道路,努力在世界人口之巅辛勤耕耘,为国家发展、学科建设做出应有的贡献。     

人口密度的空间降尺度分析与模拟——以贵州猫跳河流域为例

人口调查统计以行政区划为基本单元,数据精度不能满足较高分辨率的空间结构分析,也难以在地理综合研究中与自然地理要素数据相匹配.因此,人口密度空间化成为地理学的重要研究方向之一.本文基于贵州省猫跳河流域的乡镇人口数据,采用GIS空间分析技术与统计学方法,分析了人口密度与空间因子的关系;并采用多元回归的方法建立了人口密度数据...     

Panoptic geographies: an examination of all U.S. geographic dissertations

The study of geography as a discipline has often employed a top‐down approach that examines the output of the field's most prominent members. In this paper, we provide a bottom‐up approach by analyzing geography dissertations. We start by assembling a database that includes the title, author, date, and university for every geographic doctoral dissertation written in the United States over the last 120 years. The database allows us to track the rise and fall of regions of interest and specific topics. It gives a broad overview of the different schools in geography and their influence within separate historical periods. And it permits a more empirically based delineation of geographical “eras” based on the commonality of words in dissertation titles. This work is at the convergence of the quantitative and qualitative; we quantify and visualize textual data to provide a more robust history of geography. The result is a new, more comprehensive way to look at the changing discipline of geography.     

COMPARATIVE METROPOLITAN AREA ANALYSIS: MATCHING THE 1980 AND 1990 CENSUS PUBLIC USE MICRODATA SAMPLES FOR METROPOLITAN AREAS

The 1980 and 1990 Public Use Microdata Samples (PUMS) of the U.S. Census contain detailed information on individuals in large samples. The incompatible PUMS metropolitan geographies across these census years, however, compromise use of these data. In this note, we discuss a procedure to match the geography of the 100 most populous metropolitan areas in the 1980 and 1990 PUMS. Programmed in SAS, this set of matched metropolitan areas facilitates comparative urban analysis for 1980 and 1990. The code can be downloaded from a website (http://baja.sscnet.ucla.edu/εellis/metrocode.html).     

规模报酬递增与京津冀都市区经济增长

借助Verdoorn法则,并将其拓展至区域经济研究框架,以京津冀都市区为研究区域,将其经济增长过程分为1995～2000年、2000～2007年及1995～2007年3个时段,采用Spa-tial Durbin Model和空间贝叶斯异方差回归模型将空间自相关和空间异质性纳入传统Ver-doorn法则的经验估计中,得到...     

基于创新的城市化——中国270个地级及以上城市数据的实证分析（英文）

With the rapid development of knowledge economy, a number of important shifts are emerging in urbanization pattern across the world. Traditional urbanization theory has become hard to interpret these changes on a global scale, and "innovation" is a core concept to explain the new changes of the urbanization dynamics. As one of the important contents of urban geography, urbanization dynamic needs to turn from the general population flows between rural and urban areas into emphasizing high skilled migrants flow among cities and regions research. Against this background, we propose a conception of innovation-based urbanization. Using this concept, this study analyzes the spatial distribution characteristics of high skilled migrants and cultural diversity on urban innovation in China, based on the data of the sixth census of 270 cities at the prefecture level or above in China. This study measures the extent to which highly skilled migrants and cultural diversity increase urban innovation, by using spatial Durbin method to construct urban innovation regression model, to support the concept of innovation-based urbanization. The result shows that: first of all, the concept of innovation-based urbanization conforms to the development of knowledge economy, which emphasizes the migration process of highly skilled labor to cities. It helps to promote the changes in urban functions and landscapes and the expansion of urban knowledge activities, which undelines new dynamics of urban development, innovative landscape. Secondly, innovation urbanization based on highly skilled migrants flow is an important driving force for the development of Chinese cities, especially for eastern coastal cities and capital cities. Thirdly, the scale of highly skilled migrants flow and the level of urban cultural diversity in China both have been demonstrated of having positive effect on urban innovation output. With other conditions unchanged, a 10% increase in the number of urban highly skilled migrants and urban cultural diversity will directly result in an increase of 3% and 2% in urban innovation output respectively. This research has deepened our understanding and awareness of the openness and dynamics of the regional innovation system, and it has also provided an important theoretical basis for the formulation of urbanization and urban development policy under knowledge economy.     

新时代地理复杂性的内涵

20世纪以来,经地理学者不断探索和努力,地理学已经形成了其特有的学科特征。首先从认知方法和思维角度,阐述了新时代地理学所面临的困境;从新技术、新秩序、新数据、新方法以及新动因等方面,诠释了地理学的新时代特征。其次,针对地理区域性的新内涵和地理综合性研究所需的新方法,提出了复杂性研究是地理学成功的新路径,并认为复杂性是地理学研究的第三特征。再次,重点讨论了地理研究存在的空间复杂格局、时间复杂过程和时空复杂机制,进而解释了地理复杂系统的基本概念,并就地理复杂系统的核心问题提供了相应的研究方法。最后,提出了新时代地理学面临的新挑战和新要求。     

基于创新的城市化——中国270个地级及以上城市数据的实证分析

传统城市化概念已难以解释全球范围内出现的新兴城市化模式,而“创新”是解读城市化新变化的重要概念。从“流的空间”视角,提出了基于创新的城市化概念。在此基础上,选取中国地级及以上270个城市作为研究的空间单元,依据第六次全国人口普查资料,分析了中国高技能迁移人口和城市文化多元性的空间分布特征,采用空间杜宾模型方法,构建城市创新空间回归模型,测度了中国高技能迁移人口规模和城市文化多元性水平对城市创新产出的影响,验证了基于创新的城市化概念。研究表明：① 基于创新的城市化概念顺应知识经济发展的背景,强调高技能劳动力向城市的迁移过程,促进城市职能与景观发生变化,城市知识活动与行为的扩展,可以很好的解释城市发展的新动力、新机制和新的创新景观。② 基于高技能劳动力迁移的创新的城市化是城市发展的重要动力,对中国的沿海及省会城市的城市化发展有重要作用。③ 中国国内高技能劳动力迁移规模和城市文化多元性水平均对城市创新产出具有正效应。在其他条件不变的情形下,城市高技能迁移人口数量每增加10%,直接带来的城市创新产出增加3%;城市文化多元性水平每提高10%,直接带来的城市创新产出增加2%。研究在理论上加深了对区域创新系统开放性和动态性的理解与认识,为知识经济下城市化和城市发展政策的制定提供了重要理论依据。