The influence of subtropical cold fronts on the surface energy balance of a semi-arid site

The passage of subtropical cold fronts through central Australia produces the only significant mesoscale meteorological features in the region. The interaction of these cold fronts with the surface energy balance strongly affects the local weather and climate. The surface energy balance was measured at a semi-arid site in Alice Springs, central Australia, to determine how it was influenced by the passage of subtropical cold fronts. Both Bowen ratio and eddy correlation methods were used. The daytime energy balance of the site showed high net radiation that was partitioned into 75% sensible heat flux and 25% soil heat flux with little or no latent heat flux. At night there was a large net radiative loss that was balanced primarily by a loss of heat from the soil. The cold fronts predominately passed through Alice Springs at night and showed a strong surface signature. The fronts brought moister air resulting in higher water vapour pressures during their passage. The nocturnal boundary layer was often disturbed as the front passed, resulting in warm, moist air being mixed down toward the land surface. Mixing decreased the soil heat flux and increased latent heat fluxes toward the surface. Moisture that accumulated at the surface at these times was often evaporated after a return to drier conditions. During the daytime, surface signatures in soil and sensible heat fluxes were less distinct due to the strong convective mixing. Latent heat fluxes followed a similar trend to the nocturnal case.     

天山季节性积雪的能量平衡研究和融雪速率模拟

本文采用能量平衡法模拟计算中国西部天山山地季节性积雪的融雪速率。结果表明:在融雪期,净辐射和感热通量分别占融雪能量输入的75.3%和22.6%;用于融雪和雪面蒸发所消耗的能量分别占吸收能量的95.1%和4.9%。用能量平衡法所计算的融雪速率和实测的雪面数据吻合的较好,表明用能量平衡法估算天山山地季节性积雪的融雪速率是可行的。     

夏季不同天气条件下沙漠辐射和能量平衡的对比分析

利用2009 年7 月24 日-9 月12 日“巴丹吉林沙漠陆-气相互作用观测试验”资料,对比分析了典型晴天和阴天下巴丹吉林沙漠地表辐射、能量平衡和土壤温度的日变化规律.结果表明：①巴丹吉林沙漠典型晴天条件下总辐射、地表反射辐射、地表长波辐射、有效辐射、净辐射的峰值和日积分值都比典型阴天条件下大,大气长波辐射比阴天条件下小.两种天气条件下净辐射日积分值占太阳总辐射的1/3.②沙漠地区典型晴天地表反射率呈U型,白天均值为0.32;阴天变化较平缓,均值为0.29.③两种天气条件下地表热量平衡都以感热输送为主,波文比分别为4.55 和1.16.晴天不平衡能量达到净辐射的20%,阴天为30%.④晴天条件下有效能量夜间为负值,白天为正值,阴天全天为正值;湍流能量全天均为正值.能量闭合度(EBR)晴天平均为0.68,阴天为0.76.⑤土壤温度5~10 cm日较差逐渐减小,20、40 cm日变化不明显;5 cm土壤热通量日变化较大,20 cm土壤热通量振幅较小.     

Estimation of ground heat flux and its impact on the surface energy budget for a semi-arid grassland

Three approaches, i.e., the harmonic analysis (HA) technique, the thermal diffusion equation and correction (TDEC) method, and the calorimetric method used to estimate ground heat flux, are evaluated by using observations from the Semi-Arid Climate and Environment Observatory of Lanzhou University (SACOL) in July, 2008. The calorimetric method, which involves soil heat flux measurement with an HFP01SC self-calibrating heat flux plate buried at a depth of 5 cm and heat storage in the soil between the plate and the surface, is here called the ITHP approach. The results show good linear relationships between the soil heat fluxes measured with the HFP01SC heat flux plate and those calculated with the HA technique and the TDEC method, respectively, at a depth of 5 cm. The soil heat fluxes calculated with the latter two methods well follow the phase measured with the HFP01SC heat flux plate. The magnitudes of the soil heat flux calculated with the HA technique and the TDEC method are close to each other, and they are about 2 percent and 6 percent larger than the measured soil heat flux, respectively, which mainly occur during the nighttime. Moreover, the ground heat fluxes calculated with the TDEC method and the HA technique are highly correlated with each other (R² = 0.97), and their difference is only about 1 percent. The TDEC-calculated ground heat flux also has a good linear relationship with the ITHP-calculated ground heat flux (R² = 0.99), but their difference is larger (about 9 percent). Furthermore, compared to the HFP01SC direct measurements at a depth of 5 cm, the ground heat flux calculated with the HA technique, the TDEC method, and the ITHP approach can improve the surface energy budget closure by about 6 percent, 7 percent, and 6 percent at SACOL site, respectively. Therefore, the contribution of ground heat flux to the surface energy budget is very important for the semi-arid grassland over the Loess Plateau in China. Using turbulent heat fluxes with common corrections, soil heat storage between the surface and the heat flux plate can improve the surface energy budget closure by about 6 to 7 percent, resulting in a closure of 82 to 83 percent at the SACOL site.     

Spatial Patterns in Surface Energy Balance Components Derived from Remotely Sensed Data

A relatively simple modeling approach for estimating spatially distributed surface energy fluxes was applied to two small watersheds, one in a semi‐arid climate region and one in a sub‐humid region. This approach utilized a combination of ground‐based meteorological data and remotely sensed data to estimate ‘instantaneous’ surface energy fluxes at the time of the satellite or aircraft overpasses. The spatial resolution in the watershed grid cells, which was on the order of 100‐400 km, was selected to be compatible with ground measurements used for validation. The model estimates of surface energy fluxes compared well with ground‐based measurements of surface flux (typically within approximately 40 Wm^?2). The model accuracy may be slightly less for bare soil surfaces due to an overestimation of the soil heat flux. In addition to demonstrating the feasibility of computing spatially distributed values of surface energy fluxes, these maps were used to qualitatively infer the dominant factors controlling the energy fluxes for the time period shortly following precipitation events in the basins. For the semi‐arid watershed, values of sensible heat flux varied considerably over the watershed and displayed a pattern very similar to that of the spatially variable cumulative precipitation for at least one to eight days prior to the image acquisition. Due to the large fraction of exposed bare soil in a semi‐arid ecosystem, even very small precipitation events had a strong influence on the pattern of sensible heat fluxes observed shortly after the event (less than 24 hours). For the sub‐humid watershed, the fluxes tended to be more uniform across the watershed, and were influenced by a combination of precipitation total and land cover type.     

Surface energy balance of Keqicar Glacier,Tianshan Mountains,China, during ablation period

The meteorological data of ablation season in 2005 were recorded by two automatic weather stations on Keqicar Glacier, in the southwest Tianshan Mountains of China. One is operated on the glacier near the equilibrium line with an altitude of 4,265 m (Site A) and another is operated on the glacier ablation area with an altitude of 3,700 m (Site B). These data were used to analyze the meteorological conditions and the surface energy balance (SEB) of Keqicar Glacier. Net radiation was directly measured, and turbulent heat fluxes were calculated using the bulk aerodynamic approach, including stability correction. The ablation value of 0.68 m w.e. derived from four ablation stakes is in close correspondence to the modeled value of 0.71 m w.e. During the observation period, net radiation accounts for 81.4% of the total energy with its value of 63.3 W/m². The rest energy source is provided by the sensible heat flux with a value of 14.4 W/m². Energy is consumed mainly by melting and evaporation, accounting for 69.5% and 29.7% of the total energy with their values of 54.0 and 23.0 W/m², respectively. Radiative energy dominates energy exchanges at the glacier-atmosphere interface, governed by the variation in net shortwave radiation. Net short-wave radiation varies significantly due to the effects of cloudiness and the high albedo caused by solid precipitation. Wind speed influences the turbulent heat fluxes distinctively and sensible heat flux and latent heat flux are much larger in July with high wind speed.     

大气——植被——土壤之间物质和能量输送过程与机制的分析

在绿洲－荒漠交界处，由于绿洲荒漠之间的相互影响，相互作用，使得大气－植被－土壤之间的特和能量交换形成其特有的过程，本文对这些交换过程与机制进行了较为详细，准确的讨论。     

Characteristics of land-atmosphere energy and turbulent fluxes over the plateau steppe in central Tibetan Plateau

The land-atmosphere energy and turbulence exchange is key to understanding land surface processes on the Tibetan Plateau(TP). Using observed data for Aug. 4 to Dec. 3, 2012 from the Bujiao observation point(BJ) of the Nagqu Plateau Climate and Environment Station(NPCE-BJ), different characteristics of the energy flux during the Asian summer monsoon(ASM) season and post-monsoon period were analyzed. This study outlines the impact of the ASM on energy fluxes in the central TP. It also demonstrates that the surface energy closure rate during the ASM season is higher than that of the post-monsoon period. Footprint modeling shows the distribution of data quality assessments(QA) and quality controls(QC) surrounding the observation point. The measured turbulent flux data at the NPCE-BJ site were highly representative of the target land-use type. The target surface contributed more to the fluxes under unstable conditions than under stable conditions. The main wind directions(180° and 210°) with the highest data density showed flux contributions reaching 100%, even under stable conditions. The lowest flux contributions were found in sectors with low data density, e.g., 90.4% in the 360° sector under stable conditions during the ASM season. Lastly, a surface energy water balance(SEWAB) model was used to gap-fill any absent or corrected turbulence data. The potential simulation error was also explored in this study. The Nash-Sutcliffe model efficiency coefficients(NSEs) of the observed fluxes with the SEWAB model runs were 0.78 for sensible heat flux and 0.63 for latent heat flux during the ASM season, but unrealistic values of-0.9 for latent heat flux during the post-monsoon period.     

Surface energy and water vapor fluxes observed in a desert plantation in central Iran

Summertime observations of surface radiation budget, energy balance and atmospheric surface layer meteorology were made on an arid valley floor planted with Haloxylon aphyllum to combat desertification in central Iran. The surface microclimate is characterized and compared with other arid regions and the role of ‘desert greening’ on surface fluxes is considered. A high surface albedo (0.265) and large longwave radiation loss produced relatively low net radiation. Energy partitioning was dominated by sensible and ground heat fluxes with opposing diurnal asymmetry governed by strong diurnal variability in eddy diffusivity. The Bowen ratio was 2.53, which fell inside the range of other vegetated arid surfaces. Surface temperature gradients were strong both in the atmospheric surface layer and in the substrate, with consistent lapse conditions by day and inversions at night. The wind regime included a moderate daytime regional wind which displayed Coriolis turning and weaker nocturnal slope flows. Actual evapotranspiration (1 mm dy⁻¹) was only a small fraction of potential evapotranspiration. The diurnal pattern of AET indicates strong stomatal control. The desert greening effect of Haloxylon plantations provided atmospheric water and reduced sensible heat flux by up to 40%.     

黄土高原半干旱草地降水前后土壤的温、湿度及热力特征

本文利用兰州大学半干旱气候与环境观测站(简称SACOL站）陆面过程综合观测资料,分析了强降水前后榆中黄土高原半干旱草地土壤温、湿特征的差异,讨论了水分状况对土壤热力参数及地表能量分配的影响。结果表明:水分胁迫条件下,黄土高原半干旱草地土壤在10 cm深度存在一个湿层;强降水过程可使土壤湿度受影响范围接近40 cm深度。水分胁迫条件下,感热通量是黄土高原半干旱草地生态系统能量分配过程中净辐射的最大消耗项;无水分胁迫条件下,潜热通量是能量平衡系统中净辐射分量的最大消耗项。降水改变了土壤湿度并使得土壤热传导率发生变化,土壤热传导系数和土壤热容量随土壤湿度增加而增大。     

SOME CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SURFACE RADIATION COMPONENTS AT ZHONGSHAN STATION

A preliminary analysis of some characteristics of the radiation components is made by using the surface radiation data obtained from February 1990 to January 1991 at Zhongshan Station. The result shows that the fluxes of direct radiation and global radiation are strong with higher atmospheric transparency,and the surface can absorb large amount of radiation energy in warm season. The surface loses heat energy in cold season due to the seasonal variations of the surface albedo and shortwave radiation. The variation of net longwave radiation is related to cloud amount and surface air temperature. The property of net radiation is similar to other Antarctic coastal stations but differs greatly from Antarctic inland area.     

Seasonal and interannual variability in surface energy partitioning and vegetation cover with grazing at shortgrass steppe

We evaluated shortgrass steppe energy budgets based on the Bowen Ratio Energy Balance method for three different grazing intensity treatments at the Central Plains Experimental Range Long-Term Ecological Research (CPER-LTER) site. We tested the correlations between aboveground biomass and surface energy fluxes for three different precipitation years based on continuously measured 20 min interval data.Grazing has a potential impact on energy partitioning under conditions of higher water availability, but not during dry conditions. Our study confirms that precipitation, not grazing treatment, explains the majority of variation in aboveground biomass at the CPER-LTER site. In addition, we are suggesting effective temperature, not air temperature, as a superior metric to evaluate surface heat change. Effective temperature takes into account humidity as well as air temperature.     

上海城市热岛与热浪协同作用及其影响因子

在全球变暖的背景下,热浪变得更加频繁。城市地区由于城市热岛效应在热浪事件中承受更大的风险。然而城市热岛与热浪之间的相互作用还少有研究。利用2016-2017年两个夏季（6-8月）上海城、郊气象站逐时气温、风速、相对湿度资料、城区徐家汇和郊区奉贤涡动相关通量观测资料对比分析了热浪和非热浪期间城市热岛强度的差异,并利用一个平流扩散解析模型揭示了城市热岛与热浪相互作用的物理机制。结果表明,热浪期间的城市热岛强度相比非热浪期间明显增强,且白天增强大于夜间,显示出城市热岛与热浪之间的协同效应。热浪期间城、郊相对湿度比值相对非热浪期间明显减小,表明热浪期间城区地表相对郊区变得更干,从而抑制了蒸发作用,加剧了城市热岛强度;平均风速也明显减小,平流降温效应减弱,对城市热岛强度起正反馈效应。热浪期间城区净辐射通量的增加大于郊区,使城区获得更大地表辐射输入;由于城区更少的植被覆盖和更多的不透水下垫面,热浪期间城区潜热通量略有降低,而郊区明显增加;城区感热通量增幅则大于郊区,这种感热和潜热通量分配的改变也加剧了城市热岛强度。本研究对城市如何应对加剧的热风险具有重要的科学指示意义。     

Analysis about the influence on the thermal regime in permafrost regions with different underlying surfaces

In the last several decades, the underlying surface conditions on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau have changed dramatically, causing permafrost degradation due to climate change and human activities. This change severely influenced the cold regions environment and engineering infrastructure built above permafrost. Permafrost is a product of the interaction between the atmosphere and the ground. The formation and change of permafrost are determined by the energy exchange between earth and atmosphere system. Fieldwork was performed in order to learn how land surface change influenced the thermal regime in permafrost regions. In this article, the field data observed in the Fenghuo Mountain regions was used to analyze the thermal conditions under different underlying surfaces on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. Results show that underlying surface change may alter the primary energy balance and the thermal conditions of permafrost. The thermal flux in the permafrost regions is also changed, resulting in rising upper soil temperature and thickening active layer. Vegetation could prevent solar radiation from entering the ground, cooling the ground in the warm season. Also, vegetation has heat insulation and heat preservation functions related to the ground surface and may keep the permafrost stable. Plots covered with black plastic film have higher temperatures compared with plots covered by natural vegetation. The reason is that black plastic film has a low albedo, which could increase the absorbed solar radiation, and also decrease evapotranspiration. The ＂greenhouse effect＂ of transparent plastic film might effectively reduce the emission of long-wave radiation from the surface, decreasing heat loss from the earth＇s surface, and prominently increasing ground surface temperature.     

黄土高原不同气候区裸地水、热特征对比

为了更好地理解陆地表面水、热通量的空间差异,利用2009年和2010年1月黄土高原陆面过程观测试验（LOPEX）的陆面过程资料,对比分析了不同气候区主要地表水、热通量特征。结果表明：半干旱区的定西在近地层气象要素、土壤湿度、动量通量、地表能量及CO2通量等主要陆面特征物理量与半湿润区的平凉、庆阳差异明显;气候背景相接近的平凉、庆阳的主要陆面特征量比较接近。虽然地形、地势、海拔、下垫面影响因子也是影响陆面特征的重要因素,但是气候背景差异愈明显,陆面特征差异也愈大,即一个地区的气候背景是陆面过程特征的主要决定因子,对陆面特征产生综合影响,而地形、地貌只对一个或几个陆面物理量有影响。     

遥感反演土壤蒸发/植被蒸腾二层模型在华北地区的应用

利用一种可操作的地表蒸散遥感反演二层模型,以我国华北平原为研究区,选择2004年的3月至6月华北地区主要农作物冬小麦的生长季节作为研究时段,利用MODIS遥感卫星数据,结合地面130多个气象台站的空气温湿度实测数据,实现了土壤蒸发和植被蒸腾的反演。采用国家生态网络禹城综合试验站利用涡度相关系统观测的地表总蒸散半小时平均的数据进行了模型验证,结果表明模型估算的地表可利用能量与地面实测数据的相关系数可以达到0.92,均方差为30.4w.m^-2;模型估算的地表总蒸散值与地面实测数据的相关系数为0.85,均方差为21.3 w.m^-2,由此证明了模型的可用性。     

土地利用类型转换对地表能量平衡和气候的影响——基于SiB2模型的模拟结果

利用SiB2 模型对中国东北地区农田、草地和森林3 种土地利用类型的地表能量平衡过程展开研究,分析不同土地利用类型对生物地球物理参数（反照率和粗糙度）、能量平衡（净辐射、潜热和显热）和气候（冠层温度）的影响。结果表明：①模型模拟的地表能量平衡与实测数据的年变化动态相似（R²>0.42）,差值保持在±30 W/m²,温度在±4 ℃。②利用相同气象数据模拟不同土地利用类型通过生物地球物理过程对地表能量平衡和气候的影响,发现森林吸收的净辐射最高且主要用于潜热分配,农田的净辐射最低且主要用于显热分配,草地净辐射和能量分配居中。③生态系统获得的净辐射主要受反照率的影响,净辐射分配受叶面积指数的调节。④冠层温度（℃）受反照率和净辐射在潜热和显热间分配的相对重要性的影响：年平均值为森林（7.7）>农田（7.64）>草地（6.67）。⑤降水对模拟结果有显著影响,是森林模拟差异的主要原因。在不同土地利用类型中,降水增加土壤水分,净辐射更多分配到潜热,较少分配到显热,降低冠层温度。     

1987—1988年夏季长城站地区的热力和动力特征

本文利用1987～1988年夏季我国首次南极长城站边界层气象观测实验资料,运用近地层大气通量的平均廓线理论计算方法,分析了该地区夏季的热状况特征,并与南极内陆的瑞穗站及我国青藏高原等地区的热状况进行了初步比较。在夏季,长城站地面相对于大气而言,仍为热源,地面主要以潜热输送的方式加热大气。夏季长城站的热状况特征与我国青藏高原东部地区进入雨季后的情况相近。     

How representative is a point? The spatial variability of surface energy fluxes across short distances in a sand-sagebrush ecosystem

During the summer of 2001, the spatial variation of the surface energy fluxes across short distances, 16 m to 32 m, was examined over a sagebrush steppe ecosystem in northeastern Colorado. Two eddy covariance micrometeorological stations were used to test the hypothesis that fine-scale variations in the physical properties of the site result in significant variation in the surface energy balance. Through a comparative analysis of the flux measurements, it was found that statistically significant variations in the sensible, latent and soil heat fluxes were present at the study site. These variations were linked to small changes in the near-surface soil moisture content and leaf area index. The results of this study suggest there may be substantial uncertainty surrounding a single point measurement when it is used to represent the exchange of heat and moisture over a large area. This uncertainty must be considered when using in-situ measurements to evaluate remote sensing products or numerical models.     

A Review of “Hazards,Vulnerability, and Environmental Justice”

A relatively simple modeling approach for estimating spatially distributed surface energy fluxes was applied to two small watersheds, one in a semi-arid climate region and one in a sub-humid region. This approach utilized a combination of ground-based meteorological data and remotely sensed data to estimate ‘instantaneous’ surface energy fluxes at the time of the satellite or aircraft overpasses. The spatial resolution in the watershed grid cells, which was on the order of 100-400 km, was selected to be compatible with ground measurements used for validation. The model estimates of surface energy fluxes compared well with ground-based measurements of surface flux (typically within approximately 40 Wm^?2). The model accuracy may be slightly less for bare soil surfaces due to an overestimation of the soil heat flux. In addition to demonstrating the feasibility of computing spatially distributed values of surface energy fluxes, these maps were used to qualitatively infer the dominant factors controlling the energy fluxes for the time period shortly following precipitation events in the basins. For the semi-arid watershed, values of sensible heat flux varied considerably over the watershed and displayed a pattern very similar to that of the spatially variable cumulative precipitation for at least one to eight days prior to the image acquisition. Due to the large fraction of exposed bare soil in a semi-arid ecosystem, even very small precipitation events had a strong influence on the pattern of sensible heat fluxes observed shortly after the event (less than 24 hours). For the sub-humid watershed, the fluxes tended to be more uniform across the watershed, and were influenced by a combination of precipitation total and land cover type.