Geochemistry of Darwin glass and target rocks from Darwin crater,Tasmania, Australia

Abstract— Darwin glass formed about 800,000 years ago in western Tasmania, Australia. Target rocks at Darwin crater are quartzites and slates (Siluro‐Devonian, Eldon Group). Analyses show 2 groups of glass, Average group 1 is composed of: SiO₂ (85%), Al₂O₃ (7.3%), TiO₂ (0.05%), FeO (2.2%), MgO (0.9%), and K₂O (1.8%). Group 2 has lower average SiO₂ (81.1%) and higher average Al₂O₃ (8.2%). Group 2 is enriched in FeO (+1.5%), MgO (+1.3%) and Ni, Co, and Cr. Average Ni (416 ppm), Co (31 ppm), and Cr (162 ppm) in group 2 are beyond the range of sedimentary rocks. Glass and target rocks have concordant REE patterns (La/Lu = 5.9–10; Eu/Eu* = 0.55–0.65) and overlapping trace element abundances. 87Sr/⁸⁶Sr ratios for the glasses (0.80778–0.81605) fall in the range (0.76481–1.1212) defined by the rock samples. ε‐Nd results range from –13.57 to –15.86. Nd model ages range from 1.2–1.9 Ga (CHUR) and the glasses (1.2–1.5 Ga) fall within the range defined by the target samples. The ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr versus 8⁷Rb/⁸6Sr regression age (411 ± 42 Ma) and initial ratio (0.725 ± 0.016), and the initial ⁴³Nd/144Nd ratio (0.51153 ± 000011) and regression age (451 ± 140 Ma) indicate that the glasses have an inherited isotopic signal from the target rocks at Darwin crater. Mixing models using target rock compositions successfully model the glass for all elementsexcept FeO, MgO, Ni, Co, and Cr in group 2. Mixing models using terrestrial ultramafic rocks fail to match the glass compositions and these enrichments may be related to the projectile.     

Laser fusion argon‐40/argon‐39 ages of Darwin impact glass

Abstract— Three samples of Darwin Glass, an impact glass found in Tasmania, Australia at the edge of the Australasian tektite strewn field were dated using the ⁴⁰Ar/³⁹Ar single‐grain laser fusion technique, yielding isochron ages of 796–815 ka with an overall weighted mean of 816 ± 7 ka. These data are statistically indistinguishable from those recently reported for the Australasian tektites from Southeast Asia and Australia (761–816 ka; with a mean weighted age of 803 ± 3 ka). However, considering the compositional and textural differences and the disparity from the presumed impact crater area for Australasian tektites, Darwin Glass is more likely to have resulted from a distinct impact during the same period of time.     

What Darwin missed

Throughout his life, Fred Hoyle had a keen interest in evolution. He argued that natural selection by small, random change, as conceived by Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace, could not explain either the origin of life or the origin of a new protein. The idea of natural selection, Hoyle told us, wasn't even Darwin's original idea in the first place. Here, in honour of Hoyle's analysis, I propose a solution to Hoyle's dilemma. His solution was life from space – panspermia. But the real key to understanding natural selection is `molecular biodiversity'. This explains the things Darwin missed – the origin of species and the origin of extinction. It is also a beautiful example of the mystery disease that afflicted Darwin for over 40 years, for which we now have an answer. This revised version was published online in August 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Physical processes determining the chromospheric temperature distribution

Calculations performed with several models of the solar chromosphere support Ulmschneider's conclusion that relatively short period acoustic waves heat the low chromosphere in the region just above the temperature minimum. However, these same short period waves (10 period P80 s) are not able to maintain chromospheric temperatures at heights where _5000Å(normal) < 10^-6. The calculations also show that an earlier conjecture stating that the H₂ population might influence the non-LTE chromospheric H^- population is probably not correct, due to lower values of the ratio n _e/n _H inferred from more recent observations. Finally, the calculations support Athay's contention that the Cayrel mechanism alone cannot produce the observed temperature rise, because the magnitude of the radiative cooling in the lines is too great.     

Methane on Triton: Physical state and distribution

Infrared spectrophotometric measurements of Neptune's satellite Triton obtained between 1980 and 1982 in the spectral range 0.8–2.5 μm show six individual absorption bands attributable to methane. An additional band in the Triton data is not methane. The Triton spectral data conform more closely to a laboratory spectrum of frozen methane than to a synthetic spectrum of methane gas computed for conditions of low temperature expected at the satellite. Additionally, the strength of the bands vary with Triton's orbital position. The data thus suggest that methane in the ice phase is mostly responsible for the bands in Triton's spectrum, and that the ice is distributed nonuniformly around the satellite's surface.     

GENIE – The Darwin demonstrator

Darwin is a cornerstone mission of the Horizons 2000+ program of the European Space Agency. It has the express purpose of carrying out the first direct search for terrestrial exoplanets, and to achieve unprecedented spatial resolution in the infrared wavelength region. The detection and study of terrestrial exoplanets promises to usher in a new era in science and will affect a broad spectrum of disciplines. Further, the time line for implementation of such an instrument is now likely to be of the close order of 10 years, leading to possible answers to one of mankind's most fundamental questions in the second decade of the 21st century. It has been found that in order to realize am interferometer in space in the next 10–15 years, it is necessary to prepare the way through a number of intermediary steps – both on the ground and in space. In this context, we here describe GENIE – a ground based nulling interferometry experiment to be implemented at the VLTI in a partnership between ESA and ESO. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Some trends in the red-shift distribution of quasi-stellar objects and related peculiar galaxies

Gaps in the red-shift distribution of quasi-stellar objects and related peculiar galaxies have been studied using 205 sources. The result indicates certain definite trends in the distribution of the gaps but does not suggest any periodicity when the entire sample is considered.     

Physical conditions of ionized gas and mass-luminosity distribution in NGC 7793

The physical state of ionized gas in NGC 7793 was studied by spectroscopical means: the electronic temperature isT _e10⁴K while the electronic density ranges fromN _e1400 cm^–3 in the nucleus toN _e1000 cm^–3 in the emission regions. There are also indications of an excess of nitrogen in the nucleus. TheM/L ratio suggests for NGC 7793, a high proportion of young objects quite uniformly distributed over its body, with a slight concentration towards the nuclear region.     

Physical properties of white-light flares derived from their center-to-limb distribution

We compare the observed center-to-limb distribution of 86 white-light flares (WLFs) with calculated distributions derived from five flare models, each covering different heights, temperatures, and densities in the solar atmosphere. Considering the limited statistics and the possibility of selection effects in reporting WLFs, the following results may be considered tentative: (1) WLFs cannot be modeledsolely by high-altitude optically thin sources, by optically thin chromospheric sources, or by photospheric sources located less than 150 km above the ₅₀₀₀ = 1 level; (2) middle photospheric sources extending somewhat higher than 150 km provide the best fit to the observed center-to-limb distribution, and (3) middle photospheric sources not exceeding 150 km altitude combined with chromospheric or higher-altitude sources are acceptable. An important feature of this work is that the methods used in the analysis are entirely independent of spectral analysis; yet spectral analysis has provided evidence for both photospheric and chromospheric components in WLFs.Operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under cooperative agreement with the National Science Foundation. Partial support for the National Solar Observatory is provided by the USAF under a Memorandum of Understanding with the NSF.     

Eolian intracrater deposits on Mars: Physical properties and global distribution

An investigation of Martian intracrater materials has been made using their thermophysical properties as derived from Viking IRTM observations. Over one-fourth of all craters larger than 25 km in diameter between ?50°S and 50°N have localized deposits of coarse material on the floor which are associated with dark “splotches” seen visually. Assuming homogeneous, unconsolidated materials, the measured thermal inertias of these deposits ($\text{I = 0.003 × 10}{}^{\mathrm{?3}}\text{to}\text{0.026 × 10}{}^{\mathrm{?3}}\text{cal cm}{}^{\mathrm{?2}}\text{sec}{}^{\mathrm{<mtext>?</mtext><mtext>1</mtext><mtext>2</mtext>}}\text{°}\text{K}{}^{\mathrm{?1}}$) imply effective grain sizes ranging from 0.1 mm to 1 cm, with a modal value of 0.9 mm. These deposits are coarser and darker than the surrounding terrains and the majority of the Martian surface, but are not compositionally distinct from materials with similar albedos. They occur more frequently in the south, in regions of relatively coarse material (0.2 to 2 mm), and in relatively dark areas. These features most likely formed by entrapment of marginally mobile material which can be transported into, but not out of, crater depressions by the wind. Very few have recognizable dune forms: those that do have effective grain sizes less than 0.5 mm. The majority of the “splotch” deposits are coarser than the dune-forming materials found in the north polar region and inside extreme southern latitude craters and probably form low, broad zibar dunes or lag deposits. Intracrater deposits are noticeably lacking from the interior of the large, northern hemisphere low-inertia region of Arabia (?10°S to 30°N, 300° to 360°W), interpreted to be a sink for suspended dust, but do occur around the perimeter of this region. This distribution suggests that the intracrater features have been buried in the interior of Arabia and that the dust deposit is less extensive at the margins and may currently be expanding. The occurrence of regional dust deposits in the north may be related to the maximum wind activity currently occurring in the southern hemisphere and suggests that the location of regional sinks may migrate with time as the solar insolation maximum migrates.     

Tidal friction in close-in satellites and exoplanets: The Darwin theory re-visited

This report is a review of Darwin’s classical theory of bodily tides in which we present the analytical expressions for the orbital and rotational evolution of the bodies and for the energy dissipation rates due to their tidal interaction. General formulas are given which do not depend on any assumption linking the tidal lags to the frequencies of the corresponding tidal waves (except that equal frequency harmonics are assumed to span equal lags). Emphasis is given to the cases of companions having reached one of the two possible final states: (1) the super-synchronous stationary rotation resulting from the vanishing of the average tidal torque; (2) capture into the 1:1 spin-orbit resonance (true synchronization). In these cases, the energy dissipation is controlled by the tidal harmonic with period equal to the orbital period (instead of the semi-diurnal tide) and the singularity due to the vanishing of the geometric phase lag does not exist. It is also shown that the true synchronization with non-zero eccentricity is only possible if an extra torque exists opposite to the tidal torque. The theory is developed assuming that this additional torque is produced by an equatorial permanent asymmetry in the companion. The results are model-dependent and the theory is developed only to the second degree in eccentricity and inclination (obliquity). It can easily be extended to higher orders, but formal accuracy will not be a real improvement as long as the physics of the processes leading to tidal lags is not better known.     

Carbon in glass inclusions in the Allende meteorite

Abstract— Olivines in chondrules of the Allende CV3 carbonaceous chondrite contain two types of micron sized silicate melt inclusions: clear glass (type I) and devitrified glass (type II) inclusions. Many of the type I inclusions contain a gas bubble of variable size. Type II inclusions can be transparent (IIa), with or without a gas bubble, and brown (type IIb), with a gas bubble. A number of inclusions were measured with the Raman microprobe to detect possible presence of carbon. Carbon in the form of graphite was detected only in type II inclusions. Compositions of 11 inclusions were determined with the electron microprobe and proton microprobe in search for possible explanation of this preference of carbon for devitrified inclusions. All of the measured inclusions are rich in Si, Al and Ca. No significant differences between the compositions of the two types of inclusions were found. The data suggest that the inclusions formed from the melt trapped in growing olivine crystals, which themselves crystallized from a silicon rich, gas bearing melt. There is no coherent relation between the occurrence of graphite and the gas abundance in the original melt, as indicated by the sizes of gas bubbles. Therefore, carbon was not combined in a gaseous species (e.g., CO). It must have been preferentially dissolved in some domains of the melt.     

Equilibrium shapes of rubble-pile binaries: The Darwin ellipsoids for gravitationally held granular aggregates

Binaries are in vogue; many minor-planets like asteroids are being found to be binary or contact-binary systems. Even ternaries like 87 Sylvia have been discovered. The densities of these binaries are often estimated to be very low, and this, along with suspected accretionary origins, hints at a rubble interior. As in the case of fluid objects, a rubble-pile is unable to sustain all manners of spin, self-gravitation, and tidal interactions. This motivates the present study of the possible ellipsoidal shapes and mutual separations that members of a rubble-pile binary system may achieve. Conversely, knowledge of a granular binary’s shape and separation will constrain its internal structure - the ability of the binary’s members to sustain elongated shapes and/or maintain contact will hint at appreciable internal frictional strength. Because the binary’s members are allowed to be of comparable mass, the present investigation constitutes an extension of the second classical Darwin problem to granular aggregates.General equations defining the ellipsoidal rubble-pile binary system’s equilibrium are developed. These are then specialized to a pair of spin-locked, possibly unequal, prolate ellipsoidal granular aggregates aligned along their long axes. We observe that contact rubble-pile binaries can indeed exist. Further, depending on the binary’s geometry, an equilibrium contact binary’s members may, in fact, disrupt if separated. These results are applied to four suspected or known binaries: 216 Kleopatra, 25143 Itokawa, 624 Hektor and 90 Antiope. This exercise helps to bound the shapes and/or provide information about the interiors of these binaries.The binary’s interior will be modeled as a rigid-plastic, cohesionless material with a Drucker-Prager yield criterion. This rheology is a reasonable first model for rubble piles. We employ an approximate volume-averaging procedure that is based on the classical method of moments, and is an extension of the virial method (Chandrasekhar, S., 1969. Ellipsoidal Figures of Equilibrium. Yale University Press, New Haven, CT) to granular solid bodies. The present approach also helps us present an incrementally consistent approach to investigate the equilibrium shapes of fluid binaries, while highlighting the inconsistencies and errors inherent in the popular “Roche binary approximation”.     

Microcraters formed in hot glass by hypervelocity projectiles

Microcraters were formed in heated soda-lime glass by the normal incidence of spheres of plastic or fused silica with diameters between 0.8 and 4.5m and velocities between 2.5 and 10 km s^–1. The morphology of the craters in targets at temperatures up to 800°C is little different from those formed in unheated glass. Spallation still occurs to the same extent and above the same velocity threshold, but the spalls sag and sharp edges become dull in a few seconds at temperatures above the softening point. There is a small increase in the flow of glass from the central pit into a narrow lip at the higher temperatures, but this lip is often removed by spallation, especially at the higher velocities of impact. There is no evidence of a splashed lip with strings of melt overlying the spalled area. The results in conjunction with other evidence suggest that most lunar craters of micrometer size with a smooth central pit, splashed lip, and a spallation zone are the result of primary impacts.     

Some Physical Processes in Dusty Plasmas

Ionized gases containing fine (μm to sub-μm sized) charged dust grains, referred to as dusty plasmas, occur in diverse cosmic and laboratory environments. Dust occurs in many space and astrophysical environments, including planetary rings, comets, the Earth's ionosphere, and interstellar molecular clouds. Dust also occurs in laboratory plasmas, including processing plasmas, and crystallized dusty plasmas. Charged dust can lead to various effects in a plasma. In this review, some physical processes in dusty plasmas are discussed, with an emphasis on applications to dusty plasmas in space. This includes theoretical work on several wave instabilities, the role of dust as an electron source, and Coulomb crystals of positively charged dust. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Physical Conditions in OH Megamaser Galaxies

The expected x-ray luminosity of megamaser OH galaxies lies between 22.5 and 24.5 erg s^-1 Hz^-1, with an average of 23.6 erg s^-1 Hz^-1. This range of luminosities is typical of galaxies with active nuclei and galaxies with active star formation. X-ray heating ( _X 10^-22-10^-18 erg s^-1) and collisional pumping may be responsible for the maser emission in megamaser galaxies.     

The equilibrium of rubble-pile satellites: The Darwin and Roche ellipsoids for gravitationally held granular aggregates

Many new small moons of the giant planets have been discovered recently. In parallel, satellites of several asteroids, e.g., Ida, have been found. Strikingly, a majority of these new-found planetary moons are estimated to have very low densities, which, along with their hypothesized accretionary origins, suggests a rubble internal structure. This, coupled to the fact that many asteroids are also thought to be particle aggregates held together principally by self-gravity, motivates the present investigation into the possible ellipsoidal shapes that a rubble-pile satellite may achieve as it orbits an aspherical primary. Conversely, knowledge of the shape will constrain the granular aggregate's orbit—the closer it gets to a primary, both primary's tidal effect and the satellite's spin are greater. We will assume that the primary body is sufficiently massive so as not to be influenced by the satellite. However, we will incorporate the primary's possible ellipsoidal shape, e.g., flattening at its poles in the case of a planet, and the proloidal shape of asteroids. In this, the present investigation is an extension of the first classical Darwin problem to granular aggregates. General equations defining an ellipsoidal rubble pile's equilibrium about an ellipsoidal primary are developed. They are then utilized to scrutinize the possible granular nature of small inner moons of the giant planets. It is found that most satellites satisfy constraints necessary to exist as equilibrated granular aggregates. Objects like Naiad, Metis and Adrastea appear to violate these limits, but in doing so, provide clues to their internal density and/or structure. We also recover the Roche limit for a granular satellite of a spherical primary, and employ it to study the martian satellites, Phobos and Deimos, as well as to make contact with earlier work of Davidsson [Davidsson, B., 2001. Icarus 149, 375–383]. The satellite's interior will be modeled as a rigid-plastic, cohesion-less material with a Drucker–Prager yield criterion. This rheology is a reasonable first model for rubble piles. We will employ an approximate volume-averaging procedure that is based on the classical method of moments, and is an extension of the virial method [Chandrasekhar, S., 1969. Ellipsoidal Figures of Equilibrium. Yale Univ. Press, New Haven] to granular solid bodies.     

Physical parameters in long-decay coronal enhancements

X-ray images have been studied quantitatively to determine electron temperature and density as functions of time in two long-decay X-ray enhancements (LDE's). This is the first study of the X-ray emission from LDE's to include all corrections for scattering and vignetting. Derived electron density is about twice that found by Vorpahl et al. (1977) and by Smith et al. (1977) in the same events. Our results are combined with those for two other LDE's to find their general characteristics. The LDE's all had the form of arcades of very bright loops which were 1–3 × 10⁶ K hotter at the apices than along the legs. This temperature structure was maintained for at least 8 hr in each case. From this it is inferred that continual heating was taking place at the loop apices. Each LDE was preceded by a filament eruption and a white-light transient. Each was associated with a loop prominence system (LPS) composed of cool (T _e < 10⁵ K) loops nested 2–8 × 10³ km below the hot LDE loops. And, although the energy release rates in the four events varied greatly even 4 hr after onset, they all had similar growth rates (loop height vs time 1 km s^–1). Event lifetimes were very long, from 24 to 72 hr. After a survey of published models, it is concluded that only a magnetic reconnection model (e.g., Kopp and Pneuman, 1976) is consistent with these observations of the LDE-LPS phenomenon.