Origin of the regional stress in the North German basin: results from numerical modelling

We use a thin sheet approach to investigate the effects induced by the Alpine collision on the deformation and regional stress in northern Europe, with special emphasis on the NE German Basin. Here new seismic crustal studies indicate a flexural-type basin, which may have been induced by compressive forces transmitted from the south, due to the Alpine orogeny. Finite-element techniques are used to solve the equations for the deformation of a continuum described by a linear creep rheology and a spatial resolution of about 0.5°. The model has been constrained by stress and seismic data. We show that a relatively strong lithosphere below the northern margin of the German Basin, at the transition with the Baltic Shield, may explain the characteristic regional stress field, in particular the fan-like pattern which is observed within the region. Furthermore, the predicted strain rate pattern resembles the seismically recognizable undeformed area of the North German Basin.     

Strike-slip fault bridge fluid pumping mechanism: insights from field-based palaeostress analysis and numerical modelling

We present a finite-element study of stress perturbation in evolving compressive and extensional strike-slip fault bridges. The results are compared with a fracture study of a compressive bridge at St Donats, UK. Horizontally interbedded calcareous mudstone and bioclastic calcilutite at St Donats have a distinct vertical permeability anisotropy. This sedimentary sequence behaves as a set of horizontal aquifers. The fluid flow in these aquifers is sensitive to mean stress gradients. Paleostress analysis of field fracture data, verified by finite-element modelling, indicates a rotation of σ₁ towards parallelism with boundary faults inside the growing compressive bridge. Boundary faults and bridge faults recorded numerous fluid flow events. The modelled mean stress pattern shows a regional maximum within the bridge and local maxima/minima pairs at boundary fault tips.Finite-element modelling of an extensional bridge indicates that σ₃ rotates towards parallelism with boundary faults. The mean stress pattern is similar to the pattern in compressive bridge but with maxima and minima locations interchanged. The stress patterns are reestablished by each stress build-up preceding the rupturation of the boundary faults throughout the development stages of strike-slip fault bridges. Mean stress gradients developed pre-failure control the fluid flow in fractures of the strike-slip fault system at and after the end of each stress build-up and the fluid flow in boundary faults post-failure. Fracture reactivation and new fracture generation within an evolving bridge is a process consisting of multiple successive events that retain the storage capacity of the bridge. Rupture and sealing of the main bounding-faults is a step-wise process that opens and closes fluid conduits between areas with different pressures.     

Tectono-stratigraphic modelling of the North Sicily continental margin (southern Tyrrhenian Sea)

A two-dimensional numerical modelling that simulate the kinematic and thermal response of the lithosphere to thinning was used for the quantitative reconstruction of the late Neogene to Recent times tectonic and stratigraphic evolution of the North Sicily continental margin (southern Tyrrhenian Sea). The numerical study of the evolution of the North Sicily margin builds on the crustal image and kinematic interpretation of the margin obtained by Pepe et al. [Tectonics 19 (2000) 241] on the basis of seismic data and gravity modelling. Tectonic modeling indicate that different segments of the margin were undergoing different vertical movements, which are mainly expression of the rifting and thinning of the lithosphere occurred during tectonic evolution of the southern Tyrrhenian Sea. A prediction of the pre-rift basement topography and the Moho along the margin converges to a value of 6.5 km for the depth of necking and a temperature-dependent EET (500° isotherm). The model fails to reproduce the morphology of the Solunto High confirming its non-extensional origin. A polyphase evolution is required to reproduce the observed syn- and post-rift stratigraphy. During the first rifting stage (between 9 and 5 Ma), crustal thinning factors reach maximum values of 1.27 in the Cefalù basin. A similar value is predicted for the subcrustal thinning around 60 km NNE of the profile margin. Crustal thinning factors increase during the second rifting stage (from 4 to 2 Ma) and reach values of 2 and up to 3.5 in the Cefalù basin and in the continent–oceanic transition zone, respectively. Similarly, subcrustal lithospheric thinning factors reach values up to 2.5 in the distal sector of the margin. An uplift of more than 100 m is predicted for the North Sicily shelf and surrounding onshore areas during the post-rift stage. The evolution of thermal structure with time is very sensitive to the partial thinning factors describing the evolution of the thinning itself during time. The lithosphere preserved part of its strength during extension. The effective elastic thickness (EET) along the margin through time is 24 km at the onset of rifting and reaches values less to 8 km during the second rifting stage in the northeastern end of the margin.     

长江三峡工程构造应力场数值模拟

本文分别进行了长江三峡工程区域1/100万现今构造应力场有限元数值模拟和长江三峡工程库首区1/50万燕山期、新构造期和现今构造应力场演化规律模拟和分析。区域模拟结果表明:坝区不存在发生大于5级地震的构造应力场背景,库首区模拟结果表明:坝区不存在发生大于3级地震的构造应力场背景。     

Recent horizontal stress directions in basement rocks of southern Sweden deduced from open microcracks

The strike direction of open intragranular microcracks in quartz and feldspar host grains was determined using optical transmission and reflection microscopy on eight oriented samples taken in two study areas in Precambrian basement rocks of southern and south-central Sweden.For an area of about 160 km² (SW of Västervik) and two sample locations (W of Uppsala), the vast majority of open microcracks displays a strong preferred NW–SE strike direction. According to the common assumptions that natural cracks in crystalline rocks are predominantly extensional (mode I), and that open cracks belong to the latest microcrack generation, these strike directions should reflect the (sub-) recent main horizontal stress direction (σH) of the recent tectonic stress field.This conclusion is supported by corresponding directions known from in situ stress measurements and focal plane solutions in the vicinity of the study areas. It is remarkable that even in samples taken close (i.e. a few hundred metres) to recently active large scale faults the orientation of microcracks does not deviate from this common direction. This may point to slip on already softened faults, very local stress reorientations (e.g. m-scale) or that local stress relief was accomplished by other processes at micro-scale, e.g. mechanical twinning in favourably oriented feldspar crystals, or slip on grain boundaries.     

Design of tabular excavations in foliated rock: an integrated numerical modelling approach

Summary This paper presents a rock mechanics design methodology applicable to steeply dipping orebodies typical of many underground hardrock mines. The first stage in the design process is the characterization of the rock mass using bothin situ and laboratory data. The effects of anisotropy on rock mass behaviour are discussed with reference to laboratory and field observations. The second stage involves the use of a number of selected numerical modelling techniques to investigate ground response in the near-field rock mass surrounding the mining excavations. This study shows that the use of several numerical methods in conjunction, allowing for the advantages of each method to be maximized, provides a more comprehensive analysis of the different facets of stope design. This approach differs from those in the literature which seek to compare the different numerical methods in order to select just one method best suited for a problem. The design methodology employed emphasizes the importance of developing an understanding of ground deformation mechanisms as opposed to predicting absolute behaviour.     

Regional geological and tectonic structures of the North Sea area from potential field modelling

The spatial distribution of large-scale crustal domains and their boundaries are investigated in the North Sea area by combining gravity, magnetic and seismic data. The North Sea is situated on the plates of three continents, Avalonia, Laurentia and Baltica, which collided during the Caledonian orogeny in the middle Palaeozoic. The location and continuation of the collisional sutures are debated. We apply filters and transformations to potential field data to focus on the crystalline crust and uppermost mantle on a regional scale in order to extract new information on continental sutures. The transformations reveal intrinsic features of crustal transitions between the Caledonian plates and their relation to later extensional structures. The transformations include the Hough Transform applied to the gravity field, calculation of fractional derivatives and integrals of the gravity and magnetic fields, the pseudogravity field and the horizontal gradient field as well as upward continuation. The results indicate a fundamental difference between the lithosphere of Avalonia, Laurentia and Baltica. The location of the Mesozoic rift system (the Central Graben and Viking Graben), may have been partly determined by the presence of the sutures between these three plate, indicative of extensional reactivation of compressional structures. A significant lineament across the entire North Sea between Scotland and North Germany indicates that the lower crust of Baltica provenance may extend as far south-westward as to this lineament. Comparison of the power spectra of the gravity field in five selected areas shows significant differences in the long wavelength components between the areas north and south of the lineament corresponding to differences in crustal properties. This lineament could represent the suture between lithosphere of Caledonian origin (Avalonia) versus lithosphere of Precambrian origin (Baltica) in the lower crust and upper mantle. If this is the case, the lineament is the missing link in the reconstruction of the triple plate collision.     

Seismic imaging and potential field modelling to delineate structures hosting VHMS deposits in the Skellefte Ore District, northern Sweden

The Skellefte District in northern Sweden is a roughly 150 by 50 km² large early Proterozoic massive sulphide belt. Based on high-resolution reflection seismic data along two parallel seismic profiles, potential field modeling has been carried out and two geologic cross sections have been constructed that are consistent with the available geophysical data as well as surface geologic observations. The combined modelling suggests that the Kristineberg deposit occurs on the northern limb of a regional E–W striking syncline. The interpretations help to identify new prospective areas, both down-plunge from known ores, and on the ore-bearing horizon on the southern limb of the syncline. The new results suggest that the post-orogenic Revsund granites can be divided into two major types of intrusives, those which are intruded as domes/stokes with a maximum present day thickness of about 3–3.5 km and those which are intruded as thin sheets, with a maximum thickness of a few hundred meters. The margins of the intrusions are generally inclined inwards, suggesting that the current erosion level is near the middle, or toward the base, of the granites. The contact between the Skellefte volcanic rocks and the Bothnian Basin has been interpreted as a thrust fault. We also suggest that crustal thickening predates the Skellefte volcanism and that the interpreted Bothnian Basin rocks are either a structural basement or a separate terrane to the Skellefte volcanism. Diffraction patterns in the reflection seismic data can be interpreted as originating from either a mafic–ultramafic intrusion or a mineralization zone, similar to observations elsewhere in the world. The results obtained in this study have greatly improved our understanding of the tectonostratigraphic framework and architecture of the poly-deformed c. 1.9 Ga Skellefte VHMS belt and is a key step towards building a 3D geological model in the area.     

Three-dimensional forward and backward modelling of diapirism: numerical approach and its applicability to the evolution of salt structures in the Pricaspian basin

Numerical studies of ductile deformations induced by salt movements have, until now, been restricted to two-dimensional (2D) modelling of diapirism. This paper suggests a numerical approach to model the evolution of three-dimensional (3D) salt structures toward increasing maturity. This approach is also used here to restore the evolution of salt structures through successive earlier stages. The numerical methodology is applied to study several model examples. We analyse a model of salt diapirs that develop from an initial random perturbation of the interface between salt and its overburden and restore the evolved salt diapirs to their initial stages. We show that the average restoration errors are less than 1%. An evolutionary model of a 2D salt wall loaded by a 2D pile of sediments predicts a decomposition of the salt wall into 3D diapiric structures when the overburden of salt is supplied by 3D synkinematic wedge of sediments. We model salt extrusion feeding a gravity current over the depositional surface and estimate an average rate of extrusion and horizontal velocity of salt spreading. Faulting of the overburden to salt overhangs initiates new secondary diapirs, and we analyse the growth of these secondary diapirs. We also study how lateral flow effects the evolution of salt diapirs. The shape of a salt diapir can be very different if the rate of horizontal flow is much greater than the initial rate of diapiric growth solely due to gravity. We discuss the applicability of the results of the models to the evolution of Late Permian salt structures in the Pricaspian basin (Russia and Kazakhstan). These structures are distinguishable into a variety of styles representing different stages of growth: salt pillows, diapirs, giant salt massifs, 2D diapiric walls and 3D stocks complicated by large overhangs. The different sizes, shapes and maturities of salt structures in different parts of the Pricaspian basin reflect areal differences in salt thickness and loading history. Our results suggest that the numerical methodology can be employed to analyse the evolution of all salt structures that have upbuilt through younger ductile overburdens.     

从断层擦痕反演的郯庐断裂带南段合肥盆地白垩纪构造应力场

本文通过断层擦痕应力场反演方法,对郯庐断裂带南段合肥盆地白垩纪伸展活动进行了详细研究,厘清了郯庐断裂带南段合肥盆地白垩纪拉伸方向的演变规律。研究结果显示：从早白垩世早-中期、晚期到晚白垩世,拉伸方向由NWW-SEE向、NW-SE向到近SN向转变,具顺时针旋转特征。与西太平洋区大洋板块运动方向对比分析认为：郯庐断裂带南段合肥盆地白垩纪伸展活动发生在弧后拉张的动力学背景下,拉伸方向的演变可能是西太平洋区大洋板块运动方向改变的结果。     

The importance of accurate time-integration in the numerical modelling of P-wave propagation

The numerical dissipation characteristics of the Newmark and generalised-α time-integration schemes are investigated for P-wave propagation in a fully saturated level-ground sand deposit, where higher frequencies than those for S-waves are of concern. The study focuses on resonance, which has been shown to be of utmost importance for triggering liquefaction due to P-waves alone. The generalised-α scheme performs well, provided that the time-step has been carefully selected. Conversely, the dissipative Newmark method can excessively damp the response, changing radically the computed results. This implies that a computationally prohibiting small time-step would be required for Newmark to provide an accurate solution.     

显生宙碰撞造山带超高温变质作用的加热机制：来自二维数值模拟的约束

大量的岩石学证据表明: 碰撞造山带中常发育900~1100℃的超高温变质作用。然而, 碰撞造山带中如何出现如此极端的超高温条件仍然存在争议。为了更好地理解超高温变质作用加热机制和碰撞造山带中主要热源的相对贡献, 我们建立了一系列高分辨率二维热-动力学模型, 借此探讨了俯冲大陆岩石圈密度亏损程度、大陆地壳放射性生热率和大陆汇聚速率等因素对碰撞造山过程中超高温变质主要热源的影响。当大陆岩石圈密度亏损(Δρ=ρ软流圈地幔-ρ岩石圈地幔)大于50kg/m3时, 有利于发生大陆平板俯冲, 软流圈地幔无法上涌为地壳物质提供热源; 此时, 具有较高放射性生热率(>3μW/m3)的地壳可以发生"浅俯冲-折返"型超高温变质作用。而当大陆岩石圈密度亏损小于10kg/m3时, 大陆上地壳在深俯冲阶段首先发生超高压榴辉岩相变质作用, 随后伴随着大陆岩石圈地幔后撤和软流圈上涌, 进而出现以异常高的地幔热流加热为主的"深俯冲-折返"型超高温变质作用。此外, 较低的大陆汇聚速率(< 1cm/yr)更有利于"深俯冲-折返"型超高温变质作用的产生。将数值模拟结果与特提斯构造域的变质岩石数据和地球物理观测进行对比, 我们认为在现今板块构造体制下, 由具有密度亏损程度较高的大陆岩石圈平俯冲有利于"浅俯冲-折返"型超高温变质作用的发生, 而由密度亏损程度较低的大陆岩石圈俯冲可能导致"深俯冲-折返"型超高温变质作用的产生。     

Quaternary neotectonics of the Somogy Hills, Hungary (part I): Evidence from field observations

Quaternary and directly underlying Late Miocene (Pannonian) outcrops were analysed by structural, tectono-morphologic and sedimentologic methods to describe the main fault directions, to separate mass movements from faulting and folding and to separate earthquake-induced sediment deformations from other (e.g. periglacial) effects in the Somogy Hills. This is a gentle hilly area elevated at 200–300 m above sea level, located immediately south of Lake Balaton, Hungary.

Quaternary outcrops showed several consistent directions of faulting, and co-depositional seismic activity. Three different Mohr-sets of faults/joints could be differentiated in Quaternary sediments. The three sets are considered Late Quaternary since all cut young loess sections and have morphological expressions.

On the basis of the microtectonic measurements and morphotectonic investigations, the following sequence of Quaternary events can be proposed:

1. A (W)NW–(E)SE compression and perpendicular extension would create E–W to WNW–ESE oriented right lateral, NNW–SSE to N–S oriented left lateral shear zones, and NW–SE striking normal faults. Some of these can be evidenced in morphology and among the individual fault measurements. Some reactivated faults might suggest that this field is a relatively older one, but fresh topographic elements suggest that this stress field might be operational sub-recently.

2. A second stress field with NNW–SSE extensional and ENE–WSW oriented compressional directions could be separated. This stress field could create NNE–SSW and NW–SE oriented shear fractures and ENE–WSW oriented conjugate normal faults. Flat thrusts giving ENE directed shear may also be active under this field.

3. A third stress field might be proposed with N–S compression and perpendicular extension directions. This would create NE–SW and NW–SE oriented shear fractures, which are observed in the measured fault data. It is remarkable that the NE–SW faults are all steep, subvertical, and give a very well defined fault set. Based on the fresh topographic expression, this stress field is also sub-recent.

The different sub-recent stress fields and related fault patterns might succeed each other or might alternate through time. The first and third deformations have fresh topographic expressions and cannot play synchronously. The observed features suggest a compressionally active neotectonics of the study area.     

Late-Variscan fluid migration at the Variscan thrust front of Eastern Belgium: numerical modelling of the palaeothermal and fluid flow field

Modelling of the palaeothermal field at the Variscan thrust front in eastern Belgium indicates significant temperature modifications by late-Variscan palaeofluids migrating from internal to peripheral parts of the orogen. A detailed set of calibration data (chlorite geothermometry, microthermometry, organic rank) gives evidence of temporary palaeotemperature variations at the Variscan thrust front obviously connected to the migration of hot, low saline palaeofluids. These thermal events likely enhanced organic maturation (vitrinite reflectance, conodont alteration) of Devonian and Carboniferous sediments, which accumulated long before the Variscan orogeny occurred. Numerical simulation (2D Finite Element method) of the palaeothermal field includes coupled heat transport by thermal conduction and fluid flow. Palaeothermal scenarios yield successive palaeotemperatures (200–300°C), which are indicated by the control data, due to relatively short-term fluid ascent along the detachment and the imbricate thrust front. The simulated flow velocities are up to tens of metre per year lasting several thousand years (non-steady-state solution). In the scenarios modelled, these thermal events occur in a realm of enhanced bulk temperatures due to elevated basal heat flow densities (90 mW m⁻²) and an additional burial depth of some kilometres. The simulated temperature enhancement due to fluids ascending at the Variscan thrust front is several tens degrees. The scenarios demonstrate long-distance fluid migration during or after deformation of the Palaeozoic basin and its effect on the palaeothermal field.     

Regional stress field as determined from electromagnetic radiation in a tunnel

The paper presents the results of electromagnetic radiation (EMR) measurements in the Feuerberg tunnel in southwest Germany. EMR is associated with small scale fracturing processes. The measured numbers of EMR impulses are shown to be proportional to shear stresses. From the correlation of EMR and shear stresses along the long axis of the tunnel, orientations and magnitudes of the horizontal principal stresses are determined. The major horizontal principal stress is 3.6±0.3 MPa and has an azimuth of 143±6°. The minor principal horizontal stress is 2.1±0.3 MPa. Zones in the tunnel are located where low shear stresses occur because vertical overburden and horizontal stresses are equal. In these zones also minimum radiation was detected. A possible stress accumulation close to a fault is suggested by higher EMR values in a part of the tunnel. Orientations and magnitudes of the horizontal principal stresses, which are derived from the measurements of EMR, correlate well with conventional stress measurements. It is suggested that the cross-section measuring method described in the study is used to determine regional stress fields as well as to investigate endangered zones with high stresses in underground facilities, which may be critical with regard to stability.     

The 2002 Molise earthquake sequence: What can we learn about the tectonics of southern Italy?

On October 31, 2002 a M_L = 5.4 earthquake occurred in southern Italy, at the margin between the Apenninic thrust belt (to the west) and the Adriatic plate (to the east). In this area, neither historical event nor seismogenic fault is reported in the literature. In spite of its moderate magnitude, the earthquake caused severe damage in cities close to the epicenter and 27 people, out of a total of 29 casualties, were killed by the collapse of a primary school in S. Giuliano di Puglia. By inverting broadband regional waveforms, we computed moment tensor solutions for 15 events, as small as M_L = 3.5 (M_w = 3.7). The obtained focal mechanisms show pure strike-slip geometry, mainly with focal planes oriented to NS (sinistral) and EW (dextral). In several solutions focal planes are rotated counterclockwise, in particular for later events, occurring west of the mainshock. From the relocated aftershock distribution, we found that the mainshock ruptured along an EW plane, and the fault mechanisms of some aftershocks were not consistent with the mainshock fault plane. The observed stress field, resulting from the stress tensor inversion, shows a maximum principal stress axis with an east–west trend (N83°W), whereas the minimum stress direction is almost N–S. Considering both the aftershock distribution and moment tensor solutions, it appears that several pre-existing faults were activated rather than a single planar fault associated with the mainshock. The finite fault analysis shows a very simple slip distribution with a slow rupture velocity of 1.1 km/s, that could explain the occurrence of a second mainshock about 30 h after. Finally, we attempt to interpret how the Molise sequence is related to the normal faulting system to the west (along the Apennines) and the dextral strike-slip Mattinata fault to the east.     

Characterisation of sea-water intrusion in the Pioneer Valley, Australia using hydrochemistry and three-dimensional numerical modelling

Sea-water intrusion is actively contaminating fresh groundwater reserves in the coastal aquifers of the Pioneer Valley, north-eastern Australia. A three-dimensional sea-water intrusion model has been developed using the MODHMS code to explore regional-scale processes and to aid assessment of management strategies for the system. A sea-water intrusion potential map, produced through analyses of the hydrochemistry, hydrology and hydrogeology, offsets model limitations by providing an alternative appraisal of susceptibility. Sea-water intrusion in the Pioneer Valley is not in equilibrium, and a potential exists for further landward shifts in the extent of saline groundwater. The model required consideration of tidal over-height (the additional hydraulic head at the coast produced by the action of tides), with over-height values in the range 0.5–0.9 m giving improved water-table predictions. The effect of the initial water-table condition dominated the sensitivity of the model to changes in the coastal hydraulic boundary condition. Several salination processes are probably occurring in the Pioneer Valley, rather than just simple landward sea-water advancement from “modern” sources of marine salts. The method of vertical discretisation (i.e. model-layer subdivision) was shown to introduce some errors in the prediction of water-table behaviour.     

Earthquake generation in Cyprus revealed by the evolving stress field

Strong earthquake occurrence (M ≥ 6.0) onshore and offshore the Cyprus Island constitutes significant seismic hazard because they occur close to populated areas. Seismicity is weak south of the Island along the Cyprean Arc and strong events are aligned along the Paphos transform fault and Larnaka thrust fault zone that were already known and the Lemessos thrust fault zone that defined in the present study. By combining the past history of strong (M ≥ 6.0) events and the long-term tectonic loading on these major fault zones, the evolution of the stress field from 1896 until the present is derived. Although uncertainties exist in the location, magnitude and fault geometries of the early earthquakes included in our stress evolutionary model, the resulting stress field provides an explanation of later earthquake triggering. It was evidenced that the locations of all the strong events were preceded by a static stress change that encouraged failure. The current state of the evolved stress field may provide evidence for the future seismic hazard. Areas of positive static stress changes were identified in the southwestern offshore area that can be considered as possible sites of future seismic activity.     

巴姆地震变形场和应力场：Ⅰ．用差分干涉雷达和Okada方法求解

本文对2003年12月26日伊朗东南部克尔曼省巴姆地区发生的6．6级地震产生的位移场、应变场和应力降分布进行了定量研究。首先从差分干涉雷达（D—InSAR）出发,求解出此次地震的同震干涉条纹和雷达视线方向的位移场,并从雷达干涉的相干图上清楚的观察到了发震断层的痕迹,得出此次地震的发震断层是巴姆断层以西的隐伏断层的结论。然后结合Harvard的CMT（震源机制解）结果、Nakamura的断层结果（Arg—e—Bam隐伏断层）以及本文D—InSAR求解出的发震断层结果,利用Okada程序,计算出此次地震的北、东、垂向三个位移分量,投影得到雷达视线方向的位移,将投影结果与由D—InSAR得到的位移场比较,看到我们所讨论的断层模式可以很好的解释差分干涉雷达的观测结果,可以合理的解释Arg—e—Bam隐伏断层为此次地震的发震破裂断层。通过分析地震的破坏程度分布图,隐伏断层为发震断层的解释可以很好的符合巴姆地震的等震分布图。最后,本文利用Okada程序计算得到了此次地震所产生的应变场和应力降场。