Comparisons of xylem sap flow and water vapour flux at the stand level and derivation of canopy conductance for Scots pine

Summary Simultaneous measurements of xylem sap flow and water vapour flux over a Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) forest (Hartheim, Germany), were carried out during the Hartheim Experiment (HartX), an intensive observation campaign of the international programme REKLIP. Sap flow was measured every 30 min using both radial constant heating (Granier, 1985) and two types of Cermak sap flowmeters installed on 24 trees selected to cover a wide range of the diameter classes of the stand (min 8 cm; max 17.5 cm). Available energy was high during the observation period (5.5 to 6.9 mm.day^–1), and daily cumulated sap flow on a ground area basis varied between 2.0 and 2.7 mm day^–1 depending on climate conditions. Maximum hourly values of sap flow reached 0.33 mm h^–1, i.e., 230 W m^–2.Comparisons of sap flow with water vapour flux as measured with two OPEC (One Propeller Eddy Correlation, University of Arizona) systems showed a time lag between the two methods, sap flow lagging about 90 min behind vapour flux. After taking into account this time lag in the sap flow data set, a good agreement was found between both methods: sap flow = 0.745^* vapour flux,r ² = 0.86. The difference between the two estimates was due to understory transpiration.Canopy conductance (g _c ) was calculated from sap flow measurements using the reverse form of Penman-Monteith equation and climatic data measured 4 m above the canopy. Variations ofg _c were well correlated (r ² = 0.85) with global radiation (R) and vapour pressure deficit (vpd). The quantitative expression forg _c =f (R, vpd) was very similar to that previously found with maritime pine (Pinus pinaster) in the forest of Les Landes, South Western France.With 6 Figures     

Soil moisture variation and plant water stress at the Hartheim Scots pine plantation

Summary During two measurement campaigns in 1992 (the Hartheim Experiment HartX- and an additional experiment in autumn), measurements of soil moisture were carried out in aPinus sylvestris stand at Hartheim on the Oberrhein. Several methods were used to determine soil water status. They were compared in terms of suitability for estimating stand evapotranspiration (ET) via soil water depletion. Measurements of tree water potential suggested that conductance of the trees was affected by soil water depletion during the period of the HartX campaign in spring 1992. We interpret the observations to indicate a lesser influence of soil water availability on tree transpiration during the autumn experiment.Eddy correlation and xylem sapflow measurements provided reference ET values with which to compare the stand ET calculations based on soil moisture measurements. Profile measurements of soil moisture showed that particularly in springtime when the lower soil layers are saturated with water, the water transport from depths below the major rooting zone is a very important factor affecting evaluation of stand ET. Decreases in soil water storage may be determined best with permanently installed soil moisture sensors such as used in tensiometric or TDR measurements that provide high resolution of changes over time.With 8 Figures     

Atmospheric water vapor flux,bifurcation of the thermohaline circulation,and climate change

Latitudinal heat transport in the ocean and atmosphere represents a fundamental process of the Earth's climate system. The ocean component of heat transport is effected by the thermohaline circulation. Changes in this circulation, and hence latitudinal heat transport, would have a significant effect on global climate. Paleoclimate evidence from the Greenland ice cores and deep sea sediment cores suggests that during much of glacial time the climate system oscillated between two different states. Bimodal equilibrium states of the thermohaline circulation have been demonstrated in climate models. We address the question of the role of the atmospheric hydrological cycle on the global thermohaline circulation and the feedback to the climate system through changes in the ocean's latitudinal heat transport, with a simple coupled ocean-atmosphere energy-salt balance model. Two components of the atmospheric hydrological cycle, i.e., latitudinal water vapor transport and the net flux of water vapor from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean appear to play separate roles. If the inter-basin transport is sufficiently large, small changes in water vapor transport over the North Atlantic can effect bifurcation or a rapid transition between two different equilibria in the global thermohaline circulation; maximum difference between the modes occurs in the North Atlantic. If the inter-basin transport is from the Pacific to the Atlantic and sufficiently large, latitudinal vapor transport in the North Pacific controls the bifurcations, with maximum changes occurring in the North Pacific. For intermediate values of inter-basin transport, no rapid transitions occur in either basin. In the regime with vapor flux from the Atlantic to the Pacific, the on mode has strong production of deep water in the North Atlantic and a large flux of heat to the atmosphere from the high latitude North Atlantic. The off mode has strong deep water production in the Southern Ocean and weak production in the North Pacific. Heat transport into the high latitude North Atlantic by the ocean is reduced to about 20% of the on mode value. For estimated values of water vapor transport for the present climate the model asserts that while water vapor transport from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean is sufficiently large to make the North Atlantic the dominant region for deep water production, latitudinal water vapor transport is sufficiently low that the thermohaline circulation appears stable, i.e., far from a bifurcation point. This conclusion is supported to some extent by the fact that the high latitude temperature of the atmosphere as recorded in the Greenland ice cores has changed little over the last 9000 years.     

The hemispheric eddy flux of water vapor and its implications for the mechanics of the general circulation

Summary A study of the vertically integrated eddy flux of water, vapor in the northern hemisphere for summer, winter and the entire year of 1950 is presented. Tables and graphs of zonally averaged numerical values extracted from maps of the analyses of the zonal eddy and meridional eddy components for the hemisphere are reproduced and discussed in the light of various meteorological considerations. It is found that the southward transport of water vapor by theHadley type meridional circulation in the tropics does not imply a comparable importance of this cell for hemispheric momentum and zonal kinetic energy considerations as is assumed in classical general circulation theories.

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Zusammenfassung Es wird eine Untersuchung über die vertikale, integrierte Störungsbewegung von Wasserdampf in der nördlichen Halbkugel für den Sommer, für den Winter und für das ganze Jahr 1950 vorgelegt. Tabellen und graphische Darstellungen zonaler Durchschnittszahlenwerte, die aus analysierten Karten abgeleitet wurden, werden im Hinblick auf verschiedene meteorologische Beziehungen diskutiert. Es wurde festgestellt, daß der nach Süden gerichtete Transport von Wassrdampf durch eine meridionale Zirkulation in derHadleyschen Art in den Tropen dieser Zelle keine besondere Bedeutung für die Betrachtungen der hemisphärischen Bewegung und der zonalen kinetischen Energie verschafft, wie im allgemeinen in der klassischen Zirkulationstheorie angenommen wird.

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Résumé On présente une étude du transport perturbé de la vapeur d'eau intégré verticalement dans l'hémisphère nord pour l'été, l'hiver et l'année 1950 entière. Les tableaux et diagrammes des valeurs numériques, moyennes zonales, extraits des cartes d'analyses des transports zonal et méridional perturbés pour l'hémisphère, sont reproduits et discutés à la lumière des diverses considérations météorologiques. On a trouvé que le transport de la vapeur d'eau effectué par la circulation méridionale du typeHadley dans les régions tropicales n'implique pas une importance comparable à celle de la même cellule quand on considère la quantité du mouvement et de l'énergie cinétique zonale comme il est assumé dans les théories classiques de la circulation générale.

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The research reported in this paper has been made possible through the support of the U.S. Air Force Cambridge Research Laboratories under contract AF 19 (628)-2408.     

全球变暖趋缓背景下辽宁夏季降水变化及水汽输送特征

利用中国气象数据网提供的中国地面气候资料日值数据集(V3.0)中的降水数据以及ERA-Interim逐月再分析资料对全球变暖趋缓背景下(1998年后)辽宁夏季降水变化特征及水汽输送对其的影响进行研究.结果表明:全球增暖减缓背景下,辽宁夏季降水量存在一定的增加趋势,但趋势较弱,其中辽宁南部降水的增加趋势较其他地区显著,对...     

A climatological perspective of water vapor at the UTLS region over different global monsoon regions: observations inferred from the Aura-MLS and reanalysis data

The Aura-MLS observations of eight years from 2004 to 2011 have been utilized to understand the hydration and the dehydration mechanism over the northern and the southern hemispheric monsoon (NH and SH) regions. The monsoon regions considered are the Asian Summer Monsoon, East Asian Summer Monsoon, Arizona Monsoon (AM), North African Monsoon, South American Monsoon and the Australian Monsoon. The annual cycle of water vapor as expected shows maxima over the NH during June–August and during December–February over the SH. The time taken by the air parcels over the NH monsoon regions is found to be different compared to that over the SH monsoon regions. The analysis shows the concentration of water vapor in the upper troposphere and the lower stratosphere (UTLS) has not changed over these eight years in both the hemispheres during their respective monsoon seasons. The present analysis show different processes viz., direct overshooting convection, horizontal advection, temperature and cirrus clouds in influencing the distribution of water vapor to the UTLS over these different monsoon regions. Analysis of the UTLS water vapor with temperature and ice water content shows that the AM is hydrating the stratosphere compared to all the other monsoon regions where the water vapor is getting dehydrated. Thus it is envisaged that the present results will have important implications in understanding the exchange processes across the tropopause over the different monsoon regions and its role in stratosphere chemistry.     

Hourly estimation of soil heat flux density at the soil surface with three models and two field methods

Heat flux density at the soil surface (G ₀) was evaluated hourly on a vegetal cover 0.08 m high, with a leaf area index of 1.07 m² m^?2, during daylight hours, using Choudhury et al. (Agric For Meteorol 39:283–297, 1987) ( $ G_0^{\text{rn}} $ ), Santanello and Friedl (J Appl Meteorol 42:851–862, 2003) ( $ G_0^{\text{s}} $ ), and force-restore ( $ G_0^{\text{fr}} $ ) models and the plate calorimetry methodology ( $ G_0^{\text{pco}} $ ), where the gradient calorimetry methodology (G _0R ) served as a reference for determining G ₀. It was found that the peak of G _0R was at 1 p.m., with values that ranged between 60 and 100 W m^?2 and that the G ₀/Rn relation varied during the day with values close to zero in the early hours of the morning and close to 0.25 in the last hours of daylight. The $ G_0^{\text{s}} $ model presented the best performance, followed by the $ G_0^{\text{rn}} $ and $ G_0^{\text{fr}} $ models. The plate calorimetry methodology showed a similar behavior to that of the gradient calorimetry referential methodology.     

Turbulent fluxes of momentum,heat and water vapor in the atmospheric surface layer at sea during ATEX

The vertical turbulent fluxes have been determined during the Atlantic Trade Wind Experiment (ATEX) both by direct and profile methods. The drag coefficient obtained from direct measurements was c _D = 1.39 × 10^–3. A distortion of the wind profile due to wave action could be demonstrated, this produced an increased drag coefficient estimated by the profile method. The dissipation technique using the downwind spectrum gave a lower drag coefficient of 1.26 × 10^–3, probably due to non-isotropic conditions (the ratio of vertical to downwind spectrum at high frequencies scattered considerably with an average of 1 instead of 4/3).From direct measurements, the sensible heat flux showed a poor correlation with the bulk parameter product U, contrary to the heat flux obtained from profiles. It is shown that this is due to the higher frequency part of the cospectrum, say above 0.25 Hz, which contributes more than 50 % of the total flux. Determination of the heat flux from temperature fluctuations by the dissipation method would be in agreement with the direct determination only if the corresponding Kolmogoroff constant were 2.1 instead of 0.8.For the vertical flux of water vapor obtained from profiles, the bulk transfer coefficient was 1.28 × 10^–3.This work was supported by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, Schwerpunktprogramm Meeresforschung and later the Sonderforschungsbereich Meeresforschung Hamburg.     

伊犁河谷和天山北坡暴雨过程水汽特征分析

选取4次伊犁河谷、天山北坡暴雨天气过程,利用地面逐时降水、常规、NCEP/NCAR 1°×1°再分析及地基GPS遥感的大气水汽总量资料(GPS-PWV),通过合成分析方法得到暴雨期间大气环流的基本配置,阐明了伊犁河谷、天山北坡地区强降水期间环流形势及水汽输送的异同,结果表明:(1)强降水过程中暴雨区上空200 h Pa强辐散气流、500 h Pa槽前正涡度平流、西南气流利于垂直运动的发展,低层偏西、偏东和偏北气流为暴雨区提供水汽和不稳定能量,低层辐合、高层辐散,配合地形辐合抬升,上升运动进一步增强,造成强降水发生;(2)深厚的西西伯利亚低涡低槽系统移速缓慢,停滞时间长,造成强降水前暴雨站增湿时间更长,比较发现强降水发生前暴雨站GPS-PWV均存在1~3 d的增湿过程,暴雨期间测站GPS出现明显跃变,峰值可达到气候平均值的2倍左右;(3)GPS大气可降水量的演变与大尺度的水汽输送、聚集有较好的对应关系,但GPS高值区并不代表降水大值区,还应和动力热力等条件综合判断降水的强弱。     

SiB2和SiB3对高寒草甸和茶树地表能量通量模拟的比较

运用简单生物圈模式第2版(SiB2)和第3版(SiB3),分别模拟青藏高原两个观测站(那曲、安多)和长江三角洲苏州东山观测站的近地面能量收支,并与相应观测数据进行比较研究,分析SiB2、SiB3模拟结果和观测资料产生差异的原因,以此来认识上述地区地表能量收支特点。结果表明,SiB2和SiB3模拟的近地面能量通量与观测数据有较好的一致性。对感热通量,那曲和安多站SiB3比SiB2模拟的结果更接近观测资料,但苏州站SiB2模拟的结果与观测资料更吻合;对潜热通量,SiB3比SiB2模拟的日变化与观测资料更一致,SiB3的模拟结果与观测资料(除苏州站外)相关系数都在0.8以上;对地表土壤热通量,SiB2和SiB3模拟结果与观测数据相关系数都在0.8以上;对净辐射通量,SiB2和SiB3模拟结果与观测资料相关系数接近1.0。与SiB2相比,SiB3引用通用陆面模式的土壤描述并增加对冠层空间层温度、湿度和痕量气体的预报,使其能够改善潜热通量和土壤热通量的模拟,但对复杂下垫面的感热和净辐射通量模拟能力提高不明显。     

西北太平洋和南海不同时段生成热带气旋频数及其水汽条件的分类

对1961—2010年南海和西北太平洋不同时段生成热带气旋(tropical cyclone,TC)频数的时空分布及水汽条件对其产生的影响进行了分类研究。结果表明,可以将TC活动划分为活跃期(6—11月)和平静期(上年12—当年5月)两个时段。在TC活跃期和平静期,南海和西北太平洋上TC频数的EOF第一特征向量都表现为一致的增加或减少。活跃期EOF的第二特征向量表现为南海与西北太平洋中西部的TC频数存在相反的变化趋势,平静期EOF的第二特征向量则表现为130°E以西海域的TC频数与130~150°E范围内生成热带气旋存在相反的变化趋势。活跃期和平静期西北太平洋TC的生成频数与水汽通量散度均存在显著的负相关;而在活跃期南海TC频数与水汽通量散度仅在南海中北部有弱的负相关,在平静期南海东部到菲律宾附近海域有显著的负相关。因此,水汽条件的影响使得在活跃期南海和西北太平洋TC高频年中,南海北部和西北太平洋中东部TC频数明显偏多,而平静期高频年中,南海东部以及西北太平洋中西部TC频数明显偏多。