Melilite-derived mineral inclusions in chromite from the Gaositai complex: Implications for an extensional tectonic setting in Early Permian at the north North China Craton

The Early Permian mafic-ultramafic concentrically zoned Gaositai intrusion at Chengde, on the northern margin of the North China Craton (NCC), is a cumulative complex emplaced along a giant fracture that penetrates deeply into the continental lithosphere. Melt inclusions are present in chromite crystals from the inner dunite and chromitite zones of the Gaositai complex. The melt inclusions have experienced post-trap crystallization and resulted in multiple mineral phases, including melilite, garnet, phlogopite, magnesite and apatite, which can indicate the liquidus minerals of the primitive magma. The characteristics of the melilite+melanite+clinopyxene assemblage indicate that the primary parental magma was highly undersaturated and derived from an alkali-rich mantle source. The crystallization of phlogopite, magnesite and apatite suggests a primary magma rich in K, H₂O and CO₂. When compared with experimental data, the primary magma of the Gaositai intrusion is concordant with a kamafugite magma originating from partial melting of enriched mantle with H₂O and CO₂ at pressures greater than 2.7 GPa. This magmatic process would have been related to extensional thinning of the continental lithosphere. The Gaositai primary magmas have high Nb/La ratios, which are similar to those of ocean island basalts, but different from arc-related magmas. This suggests that the northern margin of the NCC was not an active continental margin of the Paleo-Asian Ocean subduction zone during the Early Permian: an extensional tectonic setting during the emplacement of the Gaositai intrusion is more likely.     

CO2 Degassing over Seismic Areas: The Role of Mechanochemical Production at the Study Case of Central Apennines

Field observations coupled with experimental results show that CO₂ can be produced by mechanical energy applied to carbonate rocks becoming an unexpected additional gas source besides that degassed from the mantle or produced by thermometamorphism. The evidence that a large amount of carbon dioxide associated with radiogenic-type helium (R/Ra as low as 0.01–0.08) is released through continental areas, denotes the absence of a contribution from the mantle or from mantle-derived fluids. Data collected during the seismic crisis which struck the Central Apennines in 1997–98 have shown an enhanced CO₂ flux not associated with the presence of mantle or thermometamorphic-derived fluids. On the other hand, new experimental results highlight the possibility of producing CO₂ by mechanical energy that acts on the calcite crystalline lattice. While the CO₂ released over the geothermal areas (e.g., Larderello Geothermal Field) is obviously derived by mantle-derived activities, this is not the case of the huge amount of CO₂ released over the seismically active areas where the presence mantle-derived products is ruled out. We propose that mechanical energy, e.g., released during seismic events, microseismicity or creeping processes is a possible additional energy source able to produce CO₂ and thus could explain the presence of CO₂ degassing over tectonic areas where the influence of the mantle is low.     

Comparison of rhyolites from continental rift,continental arc and oceanic island arc: Implication for the mechanism of silicic magma generation

We discuss the chemical compositions of rhyolites from three distinct tectonic settings: (i) the continental rift from Ethiopia (both Oligocene–Miocene and Quaternary rhyolites); (ii) the early Miocene continental arc of Japan (the Mt Wasso rhyolites related to the rifting of the Japan Sea); and (iii) the oceanic Izu–Bonin Island Arc. The comparison reveals that the oceanic island arc rhyolites have high contents of CaO, Al₂O₃, and Sr, and extremely low abundance of trace elements including K₂O. In contrast, the Ethiopian continental rift rhyolites are characterized by low contents of CaO, Al₂O₃, and Sr, and high contents of K₂O, and are enriched in the whole range of trace elements. The continental arc Mt Wasso rhyolites are apparently low in Nb content, although they display similar chemical trends to those of the Ethiopian rhyolites. This obvious difference in the chemical signatures of the rhyolites from the three tectonic settings is the consequence of their derivation from different sources. The implication of this result is that fractional crystallization processes were dominant in the rift‐related rhyolites both from continental rift and continental arc regardless of the prevailing tectonic setting and the nature of the crust (age, thickness, composition), whereas the oceanic island arc rhyolites may form through partial melting of young, mafic crust.     

Petrogenesis of high-K metagranites in the Kerala Khondalite Belt,southern India: a possible magmatic-arc link between India,Sri Lanka,and Madagascar

The Proterozoic Kerala Khondalite Belt (KKB), southern India preserves a distinct high-grade terrain that is interpreted to have been situated adjacent to Madagascar and Sri Lanka during Gondwana assembly. As such, it has become a major focus for testing models of supercontinent amalgamation and dispersal. The lithounits of KKB have remarkable petrological similarities to the Highland Complex (HC) of Sri Lanka and south-central Madagascar. However, there is no well-constrained petrogenetic model for the KKB that fits explicitly within a supercontinent reconstruction model. We present here results from our on-going studies on the origin and evolution of K-rich (potassic, where K₂O/Na₂O > 1) gneisses of KKB in relation to Proterozoic supercontinent events. Our results show, in a major departure from earlier metasedimentary origin, that potassic gneisses are metamorphosed granitoids. The metagranitoid samples display high K₂O contents and low Al₂O₃/(FeO + MgO + TiO₂) values. They are moderate to strongly peraluminous (ASI values ranging from 1.05 to 1.47) rocks showing mineralogical, petrological, and geochemical characteristics distinctive of the high-K calc-alkaline suites. Typical of igneous suites, the high-K metagranites show minor variation in chemical compositions with most oxides showing negative correlation with SiO₂. Geochemistry illustrates distinctive features of arc-related magmas with LILE (K, Rb, and Th) and LREE enriched patterns and considerable depletion of HSFE (Nb, Zr, and Ti). The high-K metagranites are further characterized by strong negative anomalies of Eu (Eu/Eu* = 0.10–0.44) and Sr, suggesting melting in plagioclase stability field and retention of plagioclase in the residual phase. Petrogenetic discrimination for granitoids, using major and trace elements demonstrates that the high-K metagranites of the KKB formed by partial melting of igneous source in lower- to middle-crust levels. Overall the geochemical features are supportive of origin in relation to a convergent margin setting, possibly in a continental magmatic arc system, which can be connected to the amalgamation and dispersal of continental fragments in a supercontinent event. This study, therefore, provides a lead towards more robust comparisons between the Proterozoic supercontinent events and processes.     

The snowball Earth aftermath: Exploring the limits of continental weathering processes

Carbonates capping Neoproterozoic glacial deposits contain peculiar sedimentological features and geochemical anomalies ascribed to extraordinary environmental conditions in the snowball Earth aftermath. It is commonly assumed that post-snowball climate dominated by CO₂ partial pressures several hundred times greater than modern levels, would be characterized by extreme temperatures, a vigorous hydrological cycle, and associated high continental weathering rates. However, the climate in the aftermath of a global glaciation has never been rigorously modelled. Here, we use a hierarchy of numerical models, from an atmospheric general circulation model to a mechanistic model describing continental weathering processes, to explore characteristics of the Earth system during the supergreenhouse climate following a snowball glaciation. These models suggest that the hydrological cycle intensifies only moderately in response to the elevated greenhouse. Indeed, constraints imposed by the surface energy budget sharply limit global mean evaporation once the temperature has warmed sufficiently that the evaporation approaches the total absorbed solar radiation. Even at 400 times the present day pressure of atmospheric CO₂, continental runoff is only 1.2 times the modern runoff. Under these conditions and accounting for the grinding of the continental surface by the ice sheet during the snowball event, the simulated maximum discharge of dissolved elements from continental weathering into the ocean is approximately 10 times greater than the modern flux. Consequently, it takes millions of years for the silicate weathering cycle to reduce post-snowball CO₂ levels to background Neoproterozoic levels. Regarding the origin of the cap dolostones, we show that continental weathering alone does not supply enough cations during the snowball melting phase to account for their observed volume.     

Correlation between electrical conductivity and other geophysical parameters

Anomalies of electrical conductivity are considered in relation to other geophysical parameters, such as seismic wave velocity, attenuation, seismicity and density, and to tectonic features. In the case of active subduction zones there appears to be a good correlation between low conductivity and the seismic quality factor Q. Beneath western North America, a conductive zone in the uppermost mantle apparently is controlled by the thickness and severity of the low-velocity layer. Anomalies in conductivity beneath rift valleys can be related to regions of intermediate seismic P-wave velocity, typically about 7.0 km/sec, which is suggestive of partial melting of mantle material. Within the continental crust, anomalies in conductivity are not, in general, thermally controlled, but they can show correlations with seismicity, and may indicate intra-plate boundaries.     

Genesis of the Madang Cenozoic sodic alkaline basalt in the eastern margin of the Tibetan Plateau and its continental dynamic implications

The Madang Cenozoic sodic alkaline basalt occurred in the eastern margin of the Tibetan Plateau, where is a key tectonic transform region of Tibet, North China, and Yangtze blocks. The basalts are characterized by the variation in SiO₂=42%–51%, Na₂O/K₂O>4, belonging to the sodic alkaline basalt series. The rocks are enriched in Ba, Th, Nb, Ta, relative to a slight depletion in K, Rb in the trace and rare earth element (REE) spider diagrams that are similar to the typical oceanic island alkaline basalt. The Sr-Nd-Pb isotopic compositions suggest that they are derived from a mixed mantle reservoir. The western Qinling-Songpan tectonic region was controlled by Tibet, North China and Yangtze blocks since Cenozoic, therefore, the region was in the stage of the substance converge from the mantle to upper crust, producing a mixed mantle reservoir in the studied area. The Madang basalts occurred in the specific tectonic background, they result from partial melting of a mixed asthenospheric mantle reservoir in the western Qinling-Songpan tectonic node.

     

Petrochemistry of sandstones from Neoproterozoic basins of the Bastar craton, Central Indian Shield: Implications for paleoweathering, provenance and tectonic history

Petrographic analysis and chemical analysis of major and trace elements including rare earth elements of the Neoproterozoic sandstones from the Chandarpur Group and the Tiratgarh Formation have been carried out to determine their provenance, tectonic setting and weathering conditions. All sandstone samples are highly enriched in quartz but very poor in feldspar and lithic fragments. Petrographically and geochemically these sandstones are classified as subarkose, sublitharenite and arenite. The Chemical Index of Alteration (CIA mean 68) and Th/U ratios (mean 4.2) for these sandstones suggest their moderate weathering nature. Generally, all sandstone samples are strongly depleted in major elements (except SiO₂), trace elements (except Zr) and REE in comparison with Post Archean Australian Shale (PAAS) and Upper Continental Crust (UCC). Their mineralogy and mean of elemental ratios suitable for determination of provenance and tectonic setting, e.g. Al₂O₃/SiO₂ (0.02), K₂O/Na₂O (10), Eu/Eu* (0.67), (La/Lu)n (10.4), La/Sc (3), Th/Sc (1.2), La/Co (0.22), Th/Co (0.08), and Cr/Th (7.2), support a felsic source and a passive margin tectonic setting for these sandstones. Also these key elemental ratios do not show much variation over a range of SiO₂. Thus we attest their significance in determining source rock characteristics of quartz rich sandstones. Chondrite‐normalized REE patterns with LREE enrichment and a strong negative Eu anomaly are also attributed to felsic source rock characteristics for these sandstones. The source rocks identified are granite and gneiss of the Bastar craton. Minor amounts may have been derived from older supracrustals of the Bastar craton. However, the major element data of the Paleoproterozoic Sakoli schists when compared with those of the Neoproterozoic sandstones indicate that the schists were derived from a mafic source and deposited in an active continental margin tectonic setting. There is, however, little difference in CIA values between the Paleoproterozoic Sakoli schists and Neoproterozoic sandstones, indicating prevailing of similar (moderate‐intense) weathering conditions throughout the Proterozoic in the Bastar craton. Our study also suggests a change in the provenance and tectonic setting of deposition of sediments from dominantly a mafic source and an active continental margin in the Paleoproterozoic to dominantly granite and gneiss (felsic source) and a passive continental margin in the Neoproterozoic in the Bastar craton.     

Petrogenesis of Early Cretaceous adakitic granodiorite: Implication for a crust thickening event within the Cathaysia Block,South China

Adakitic rocks in continental settings are commonly considered to be formed by partial melting of thickened or delaminated lower crust. Investigations on this kind of rocks can provide important information about crustal evolution complementary to information from other rocks. This paper reports adakitic granodiorite of the Lingxi pluton in the interior of the Cathayisa Block. LA-ICP-MS zircon U-Pb dating shows that it was formed in the late Early Cretaceous(100±1 Ma). The granodiorite has geochemical features of adakitic rocks derived from partial melting of the thickened lower crust, e.g., high SiO2(mainly ranging from 64.4 to 68.9 wt.%) and Sr(624–894 ppm) contents, Sr/Y(49.9–60.8) and La/Yb(23.4–42.8) values, low Y(10.3–17.1 ppm), Ni(5.62–11.8 ppm) and MgO(mostly from 0.86 wt.% to 1.57 wt.%) contents and weak Eu anomaly. It has initial 87Sr/86 Sr ratios of 0.7086–0.7091, εNd(t) values of.6.2 to.5.9 and zircon εHf(t) values mostly of.10.1 to.7.6. Based on the geochemical characteristics and simple modelling, it is suggested that the most likely generation mechanism of the Lingxi granodiorite is partial melting of a thickened Proterozoic lower continental crust at a pressure ≥12 kbar(or crust thickness ≥40km), leaving a garnet-bearing amphibolite residue. Combining our results and previous studies of the tectonic evolution of the Cathaysia Block, we propose that the crust was thickened to over 40 km by a compressive event occurring during the late Early Cretaceous, which is supported by the observation that there is an angular unconformity between the Upper Cretaceous Series and the early Lower Cretaceous or the Jurassic rocks. After this event, the Cathaysia Block experienced a lithospheric extension and thinning probably driven by the high-angle paleo-Pacific subduction. With the attenuation of lithosphere, the lower crust was heated to partial melting by upwelling asthenospheric materials, resulting in generation of the Lingxi granodiorite and other coeval granitoids in the Cathaysia Block. This study provides new information on the crustal evolution of the Cathaysia Block during the Early Cretaceous.     

Ore-forming mechanism for the Xiaoxinancha Au-rich Cu deposit in Yanbian,Jilin Province,China: Evidence from noble gas isotope geochemistry of fluid inclusions in minerals

The Xiaoxinancha Au-rich copper deposit is one of important Au-Cu deposits along the continental margin in Eastern China. The deposit consists of two sections: the Beishan mine (North), composed of altered rocks with veinlet-dissemination sulfides and melnicovite-dominated sulfide-quartz veins, and the Nanshan mine (South), composed of pyrrhotite-dominated sulfide-quartz veins and pure sulfide veins. The isotope compositions of noble gases extracted from fluid inclusions in ore minerals, i.e. ratios of 3He/4He, 20Ne/22Ne and40Ar/36Ar are in the ranges of 4.45―0.08 Ra, 10.2―8.8 and 306―430, respectively. Fluid inclusions in minerals from the Nanshan mine have higher 3He/4He and 20Ne/22Ne ratios whereas those from the Beishan mine have lower 3He/4He ratios. The analysis of origin, and evolution of the ore fluids and its relations with the ore-forming stages and the ages of mineralization suggests that the initial hydrothermal fluids probably come from the melts generated by partial melting of oceanic crust with the participation of fluids from the mantle (mantle-plume type)/aesthenosphere. This also corresponds to the continental margin settings during the subduction of Izanagi ocaneic plate towards the palaeo-Asian continent (123―102 Ma). The veinlet-dissemination ore bodies of the Beishan mine were formed through replacement and crystallization of the mixed fluids generated by mixing of the ascending high-temperature boiling fluid with young crustal fluid whereas the melnicovite-dominated sulfide-quartz veins were formed subsequently by filling of the high-temperature ore fluid in fissures. Pyrrhotite-dominated sulfide-quartz veins in the Nanshan mine were formed by filling-deposition-crystallization of the moderate-temperature ore fluids and the pure sulfide veins were formed later by filling-deposition-crystallization of ore substance-rich fluids after boiling of the moderate-temperature ore fluids. The metallogenic dynamic processes can be summarized as: (1) formation of fluidand ore substance-bearing Adakitic magma by degassing, dewatering and partial melting during subduction of the Izanagi plate; (2) separation and formation of ore fluids from the Adakitic magma; and (3) success-sive ascending of the ore fluids and final formation of the Au-rich Cu deposit of veinlet-dissemination and vein types by secondary boiling.     

地幔热导率的选取对动力学数值模拟的影响——以岩石圈张裂过程为例

目前存在有多种地幔热导率模型,不同模型在数值和随温压变化的特征上有明显的差异.为探究不同热导率模型对动力学数值模拟结果的影响,本文对不同模型下的岩石圈张裂过程进行模拟研究,探讨地幔热导率对岩石圈热传输、变形和熔融过程的影响及其作用机理.结果显示,不同热导率模型下,岩石圈的变形和熔融特征表现出明显差异.高热导率模型下,岩石圈破裂较晚,形成陆缘较为宽阔,地壳熔融强烈而地幔熔融较弱;低热导率模型下,岩石圈破裂较早,形成陆缘较为狭窄,地幔熔融强烈而地壳熔融较弱.这种差异源于不同地幔热导率下岩石圈和地幔热状态的变化及相应力学性质的改变.高热导率下,热传导的增温效应显著,岩石圈呈现较热的状态,其强度整体较低,壳幔耦合减弱;而低热导率下,热对流的增温效应显著,岩石圈呈较冷的状态,其强度整体较高,壳幔耦合增强.基于模拟结果,本文认为地幔热导率的选取对动力学模拟的结果有着较为显著的影响,相对于随温压的变化,热导率数值的差异对动力学数值模拟的结果影响更大,尤其是对于地幔熔融过程的影响.     

Thermal consequences of the formation of a slab window beneath the Mid-Cretaceous southwest Japan arc: A 2-D numerical analysis

Abstract   The development of voluminous granitic magmatism and widespread high-grade metamorphism in Mid-Cretaceous southwest Japan have been explained by the subduction of a spreading ridge (Kula–Pacific or Farallon–Izanagi plate boundaries) beneath the Eurasian continent and the formation of a slab window. In the present study, the thermal consequences of the formation of a slab window beneath a continental margin are evaluated through a 2-D numerical simulation. The model results are evaluated by comparison with the Mid-Cretaceous geology of southwest Japan. Of particular interest are the absence of an amphibolite- to granulite-facies metamorphic belt near the Wadati–Benioff plane, and significant melting of the lower crustal-mafic rocks sufficient to form a large amount of granitic magma. Because none of the model results simultaneously satisfied these two geological interpretations, it is suggested that subduction of plate boundaries in Mid-Cretaceous southwest Japan was not associated with the opening of a slab window. According to previous studies, and the results of the present study, two different tectonic scenarios could reasonably explain the geological interpretations for Mid-Cretaceous southwest Japan: (i) The spreading ridge did not subduct beneath the Eurasian continent, but was located off the continental margin, implying the continuous subduction of very young oceanic lithosphere; (ii) ridge subduction beneath the continental margin occurred after active spreading had ceased. Consequently, in both tectonic scenarios, the subduction of plate boundaries at the Mid-Cretaceous southwest Japan was not associated with a slab window, but very young (hot) oceanic lithosphere.     

Marine electromagnetic research

All aspects of Marine Electromagnetic Research have made important advances over the last few years: theoretical studies, instrument design and data from equipment on the bottom of the ocean. The seafloor results show that the depth to the conducting asthenosphere is greater under older lithosphere and thus the thickness of the lithosphere increases with age. To obtain greater resolution of the electrical conductivity structure of the upper layers, several controlled source systems were developed. The first observations indicate a decrease in conductivity a few kilometers below the seafloor. Improved theoretical response curves for the electromagnetic fields at an ocean-continent boundary are now available. The theoretical curves, combined with land and seafloor data from coastal regions, allow the effects of the electric currents induced in the seawater to be separated from those caused by currents in the tectonic structure at the continental margin. Of growing interest is the application of electromagnetic methods to determine oceanographic wave parameters. Recent studies have investigated meanders in ocean current patterns, the response of internal edge waves and the tidal effect. With the forseeable improvements in seafloor instrumentation it will be possible to investigate the conductivity structure of offshore basins and the hydrothermal deposits associated with spreading ridges.     

Characteristics and origins of primary fluids and noble gases in mantle-derived minerals from the Yishu area, Shandong Province, China

springerlink.com Studies of mantle fluids are currently one of the hot topics in the earth science, greatly contributing to re-vealing origins and evolutions of fluids. In general, the concept of mantle fluids refers to their active compo-nents, such as CO2, H2O, N2, etc., while the noble gases inert in chemical properties belong to another research system. Due to their marked differences in various fluid sources of the Earth[1], the isotopic sig-natures of He and Ar have been widely used a…     

Fluids in the lithosphere, 1. Experimentally-determined wetting characteristics of CO2H2O fluids and their implications for fluid transport, host-rock physical properties, and fluid inclusion formation

The equilibrium distribution of CO₂H₂O fluids in synthetic rock samples (principally dunite and quartzite) has been characterized by measurements of the dihedral wetting angle, θ, resulting from 5-day annealing periods at 950–1150°C and 1 GPa. For fluids in equilibrium with polycrystalline quartz, θ varies systematically from 57° for pure H₂O to 90° at X_CO2 0.9. Similarly, for San Carlos olivine, θ varies from 65° for pure H₂O to 90° at X_CO2 0.9. The addition of solutes (NaCl, KCl, CaF₂, Na₂CO₃) to H₂O causes a major decrease in θ in the quartz/fluid system (to values as low as 40°), but has no effect on fluid wetting in dunite. Reconnaissance experiments on other mono- and polymineralic aggregates indicate universally high wetting angles (θ 60°) in upper mantle assemblages and for CO₂ in felsic compositions. For diopside + H₂O, θ 80°, with large variation due to crystalline anisotropy. In no case does θ approach 0°, the condition necessary for fluid to be present along all grain boundaries.Because a value of θ greater than 60° precludes the existence of an interconnected fluid phase in a rock, our results have important implications not only for fluid transport but also for the physical properties of the bulk fluid/rock system. Any static fluid present in the upper mantle must exist as isolated pores located primarily at grain corners, and transport can occur only by hydrofracture. In the continental crust, aqueous fluids (especially saline ones) are likely to form an interconnected network along grain edges, thus contributing to high electrical conductivity and allowing the possibility of fluid transport by porous flow or surface energy-driven infiltration.     

Theoretical investigation of the ocean-coast effect at a passive continental margin

The idea that oceanic lithosphere is thinner than continental lithosphere is widely accepted even though one would like to see clearer evidence to support it. In fact, the very concept of lithosphere is still a matter of some debate. If there is indeed a variation in the thickness of the lithosphere at continental margins and if this change is associated with a lateral variation in electrical conductivity one may envisage detecting it with electromagnetic soundings methods. A model of a passive continental margin has therefore been investigated to test whether this would be feasible. It has been found that the well-known but strong ocean-coast effect masks the minor lithospheric effect in magnetotelluric soundings performed on the shore. Inductive soundings, on the other hand, are highly sensitive to lateral variations in electrical conductivity. An analysis in terms of the induction arrow has shown that such soundings carried out on land would be perfectly suitable to reveal a changing lithospheric thickness, if the continents merely extended to the oceanic coast. However, the presence of only a narrow continental shelf of 100 km width under 250 m of sea-water produces an overriding coast effect ahead of the margin, and thus renders electromagnetic methods unsuited to reveal a changing lithospheric thickness.     

Late Mesozoic subduction‐induced hydrothermal gold deposits along the eastern Asian and northern Californian margins: Oceanic versus continental lithospheric underflow

During late Mesozoic subduction of paleo‐Pacific lithospheric plates, numerous gold vein deposits formed in the Dabie–Sulu Belt of east‐central China plus its east‐Asian extensions, and in the Klamath Mountains plus Sierran Foothills of northern California. In eastern Asia, earlier transpression and continental collision at about 305–210 Ma generated a high pressure–ultrahigh pressure orogen, but failed to produce widespread intermediate to felsic magmatism or abundant hydrothermal gold deposits. Similarly in northern California, strike‐slip ± minor transtension–transpression over the interval of about 380–160 Ma resulted in the episodic stranding of oceanic terranes, but generated few granitoid magmas or Au ore bodies. However, for both continental margin realms, nearly head‐on Cretaceous destruction of oceanic lithosphere involved sustained underflow; reaching magmagenic depths of about 100 km, the descending mafic‐ultramafic plates dewatered, producing voluminous calc‐alkaline arc magmas. Ascent of these plutons into the middle and upper crust released CO₂ ± S‐bearing aqueous fluids and/or devolatilized the contact‐metamorphosed wall rocks. Such hydrothermal fluids transported gold along fractures and fault zones, precipitating it locally in response to cooling, fluid mixing, and/or reactions with wall rocks of contrasting compositions (e.g. serpentinite, marble). In contrast, where sialic crust was subducted to depths of about 100 km, only minor production of granitoid melts occurred, and few major coeval Au vein deposits formed. The mobilization of precious metal‐bearing fluids in continental margin and island arc environments apparently requires long‐continued, nearly orthogonal descent of oceanic, not continental, lithosphere.     

Electromagnetic studies of global geodynamic processes

The deep electromagnetic sounding (DES) technique is one of the few geophysical methods, along with seismology, gravity, heat flow, which may be use to probe the structure of the Earth's mantle directly. The interpretation of the DESs may provide electrical conductivity profiles down to the upper part of the lower mantle. The electrical conductivity is extremely sensitive to most of the thermodynamic processes we believe are acting in the Earth's mantle (temperature increases, partial melting, phase transition and to a lesser extent pressure). Therefore, in principle, results from DES along with laboratory measurements could be used to constrain models of these processes.The DES technique is reviewed in the light of recent results obtained in a variety of domains: data acquisition and analysis, global induction modeling and data inversion and interpretation.The mechanisms and the importance of surface distortions of the DES data are reviewed and techniques to model them are discussed. The recent results in terms of the conductivity distribution in the mantle from local and global DES are presented and a tentative synthesis is proposed.The geodynamic interpretations of the deep conductivity structures are reviewed. The existence of mantle lateral heterogeneities in conductivity at all scales and depths for which electromagnetic data are available is now well documented. A comparison with global results from seismology is presented.     

The significance of source versus process in the tectonic controls of magma genesis

Despite the association of certain characteristic trace-element signatures with particular tectonic environments of eruption, there are accumulating data which would result in significant tectonic misassignments. Ambiguity of signals appears in active arc/back-arc systems of the southwestern Pacific and particularly in some intracontinental plate suites. Given the selective preservation of continental as opposed to oceanic lithosphere, inappropriate paleotectonic inferences are probable using trace-element criteria alone.Strong relative fractionation of the alkalis and alkaline earth elements (AEE) with respect to the rare earth elements (REE) in the majority of arc-related magmas and a number of intraplate continental basalts is strongly suggestive of the involvement of hydrous fluids at some stages in the respective petrogenetic processes occurring in these two tectonic regimes. In contrast, fractionation of high-field-strength elements (HFSE) such as Nb and Ta with respect to the REE in the same suites is most readily explained by the involvement, at some stage in the magma formation process, of high-SiO₂ melts. A number of widely applied tectonic discriminants makes use of AEE/HFSE fractionation, but the processes and sources involved in subduction-zone petrogenesis may be duplicated during interaction of mantle-derived basalt with the heterogeneous components of continental lithosphere, both mantle and crust. A significant role for both volatile-dominated fluids and silicate melts is implicated in collision and some intracontinental plate magmatism.     

Relations between electrical conductivity and petrological parameters of the crust and upper mantle

Laboratory data of the electrical conductivity of rocks and minerals pertinent to the deeper crust and upper mantle and summarized. They are discussed in the context of a theory to calculate effective conductivities of materials in the state of partial melt. Most published data have been obtained by too rapid measurements, i.e. without reaching an equilibrium state of the sample. Conductivity measurements on a material similar to the composition of pyrolite are not het known, their importance is outlined. A global conductivity distribution obtained by electromagnetic induction studies is represented by a few results covering oceanic and continental areas. Till today it seems to be a doubtful venture to deduce the temperature of the upper mantle or even the existence of a partial molten asthenosphere from a global conductivity distribution. On a more local scale the correlation of electrical conductivity with temperature and state of the material seems to be more realistic. This is tentatively shown by two petrological models of the Afar depression in Ethiopia and of the midoceanic rift.