Hydrologic factors controlling groundwater salinity in northwestern coastal zone,Egypt

The aim of this article is to assess the main factors influencing salinity of groundwater in the coastal area between El Dabaa and Sidi Barani, Egypt. The types and ages of the main aquifers in this area are the fractured limestone of Middle Miocene, the calcareous sandstone of Pliocene and the Oolitic Limestone of Pleistocene age. The aquifers in the area are recharged by seasonal rainfall of the order of 150 mm/year. The relationship of groundwater salinity against the absolute water level, the well drilling depth, and the ability of aquifer to recharge has been discussed in the present work. The ability of aquifer to locally recharge by direct rainfall is a measure of the vertical permeability due to lithological and structural factors that control groundwater salinity in the investigated aquifers. On the other hand, the fracturing system as well as the attitude of the surface water divide has a prime role in changing both the mode of occurrence and the salinity of groundwater in the area. Directly to the west of Matrouh, where the coastal plain is the narrowest, and east of Barrani, where the coastal plain is the widest, are good examples of this concept, where the water salinity attains its maximum and minimum limits respectively. Accordingly, well drilling in the Miocene aquifer, in the area between El Negila and Barrani to get groundwater of salinities less than 5000 mg/l is recommended in this area, at flow rate less than 10 m³/hr/well. In other words, one can expect that the brackish water is probably found where the surface water divide is far from the shore line, where the Wadi fill deposits dominate (Quaternary aquifer), acting as a possible water salinity by direct rainfall and runoff.     

Characteristic of groundwater potentialities in West Nile Valley South,Minia Governorate,Egypt

The main aim of the present study is to detect the status of groundwater resources in west Mallawi area which represented one of the new reclamation lands. In order to achieve this aim, the hydrogeological and hydrogeochemical studies are carried out, based on the results of 21 pumping tests and chemical analysis of 29 water samples. Two water-bearing units are detected in the study area, namely, the Eocene fractured limestone aquifer which occupies the east portion of the studied area. The second aquifer consists of friable sediments of sand and gravel and may be related to the late Oligocene–early Miocene age and overlies the limestone rocks in the west, and this aquifer were studied for the first time in this work. Regionally, the groundwater flow in the area under study occurs toward the north and east directions. There is a hydraulic connection between both aquifers through the structural pattern affected the area. The partial recharge of the both aquifers takes place through the upward leakage from deep aquifers and the Nile water. There is a general decrease in the water salinity from west to east direction. The groundwater of both aquifers was evaluated for the different purposes and concluded that, it is considered suitable for different uses.     

An assessment of the origin and variation of groundwater salinity in southeastern Ghana

Groundwater from the major aquifers in southeastern part of Ghana was sampled to determine the main controls on groundwater salinity in the area. This paper uses multivariate statistical methods, conventional graphical methods and stable isotope data to determine spatial relationships among groundwaters from the different hydrogeologic units in the area on the basis of salinity. Q-mode hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA) was used to spatially classify the samples, whilst R-mode factor analysis was used to reduce the dataset into two major principal components representing the sources of variation in the hydrochemistry. Analysis of the major chemical parameters suggests that the principal component responsible for salinity increment in the area is the weathering of minerals in the aquifers. This factor is especially more significant in the upland areas away from the coast. The second factor responsible for salinity in the area is the combined effects of seawater intrusion, and anthropogenic activities. This study finds that four major spatial groundwater groups exist in the area: low salinity, acidic groundwaters which are mainly derived from the Birimian and Togo Series aquifers; low salinity, moderate to neutral pH groundwaters which are mainly from the Voltaian, Buem and Cape Coast granitoids; very high salinity waters which are not suitable for most domestic and irrigation purposes and are mainly from the Keta aquifers; and intermediate salinity groundwaters comprising groundwater from the Keta basin aquifers with minor contributions from the other major terrains. The major water type identified in this study is the Ca–Mg–HCO₃ type, which degrades into predominantly Na–Cl–SO₄ more saline groundwaters toward the coast. Stable isotope data analyses suggest that groundwater in the Voltaian aquifers is largely of recent meteoric origin. The Birimian and Togo aquifers receive a component of recharge from the tributaries of the Densu and Volta Rivers, after the waters have undergone evaporative enrichment of the heavier isotopes. In the Keta basin, recharge is mainly from precipitation but an observed enrichment of ²H and ¹⁸O isotopes is probably due to seawater and evaporative effects since the water table there is very shallow. An analysis of the irrigation quality of groundwater from the six aquifers in the study area using sodium adsorption ratio and electrical conductivity suggests that most of the aquifers supply groundwater of acceptable quality for irrigation. The only exception is the Keta Basin area, where extremely high salinities and SAR values render groundwater from this basin unsuitable for irrigation purposes.     

Hydrogeological studies for the Nubia sandstone aquifers in Garf Hussein area,Western Desert,Egypt

The lithology of the studied aquifers has an important effect on their hydrogeologic setting. Moreover, the structural patterns have their imprint on the geologic setting and consequently the hydrogeologic conditions of the area. Lake Nasser recharges the groundwater in the study area by large amount of water increasing the groundwater level. A comparison of the depth to water in the same wells at two different periods (1998 and 2014 ) shows that the depth to water increases with average rise 11.1 m during 16 years. The constructed water table map shows that the groundwater flow is mainly towards the northwest direction reflecting recharge from Lake Nasser. The hydraulic parameters of the Abu Aggag and Sabaya sandstone aquifers are determined in the present work from pumping tests. The transmissivity of the studied aquifers reflects the moderate to high potentiality. The groundwater salinity of the studied aquifers is fresh water and varies from 353 to 983 ppm (part per million) and suitable for all purposes. It increases due to the west direction coinciding with groundwater flow direction. The main result of the present study shows that the seepage water from Lake Nasser attains 17 mcm/year.     

Assessment of the Hydrogeochemical Characteristics of Groundwater Resources at some Wadis in the East of El Minia Governorate, Eastern Desert, Egypt

The El Minia governorate lies within the Nile Valley, surrounded by calcareous plateaus to the east and west. The present study focuses on the hydrogeochemistry of the Eocene limestone aquifer at some wadis in the east El Minia governorate, Eastern Desert, Egypt. Hydrogeologically, two main aquifers are encountered in the study area, namely the Maghagha marly limestone and the Samalut chalky limestone aquifers. The Maghagha aquifer is composed of alternating layers of marly limestone and shale with thicknesses ranging from 3.49 m to 177.05 m and a groundwater depth ranging from 8.5 m to 59.27 m which reflects low groundwater potentiality. The groundwater salinity representing this aquifer ranges from 603.5 mg/L to 978.5 mg/L, reflecting fresh water type. Samalut aquifer is made up of chalky, cavernous and fractured limestone with thickness ranging from 30 m to 205 m and groundwater depth ranging from 9 m to 86.77 m, which indicates good groundwater potential. The groundwater salinity of the concerned aquifer ranges from 349.7 mg/L to 2043.9 mg/L, reflecting fresh to possibly brackish water types. Groundwater in the study area is of meteoric water origin; recent recharge is mainly controlled through the presence of fractures and their densities. The majority of groundwater samples in the study area are suitable for drinking and irrigation purposes.     

Water quality analysis of groundwater in crystalline basement rocks,Northern Ghana

Hydrochemical data are presented for groundwater samples, collected from fractured aquifers in parts of northern Ghana. The data was collected to assess the groundwater suitability for domestic and agricultural use. Results of the study reveal that the pH of the groundwater in the area is slightly acidic to slightly alkaline. The electrical conductivity values, total dissolved solids (TDS) values and calcium, magnesium and sodium concentrations in the groundwater are generally below the limit set by the WHO for potable water supply. On the basis of activity diagrams, groundwater from the fractured aquifers appears to be stable within the montmorillonite field, suggesting weathering of silicate minerals. An inverse distance weighting interpolator with a power of 2 was applied to the data points to produce prediction maps for nitrate and fluoride. The distribution maps show the presence of high nitrate concentrations (50–194 mg/l) in some of the boreholes in the western part of the study area indicating anthropogenic impact on the groundwater. Elevated fluoride level (1.5–4 mg/l), higher than the WHO allowable fluoride concentration of 1.5, is recorded in the groundwater underlying the northeastern part of the study area, more specifically Bongo and its surrounding communities of the Upper East region. Results of this study suggest that groundwater from the fractured aquifers in the area exhibit low sodicity–low salinity (S1–C1), low sodicity–medium salinity (S1–C2) characteristics [United States Salinity Laboratory (USSL) classification scheme]. All data points from this study plot within the ‘Excellent to good’ category on a Wilcox diagram. Groundwater in this area thus appears to provide irrigation water of excellent quality. The hydrochemical results indicate that, although nitrate and fluoride concentrations in some boreholes are high, the groundwater in the study area, based on the parameters analyzed, is chemically potable and suitable for domestic and agricultural purposes.     

Characterization and assessment of groundwater resources using hydrogeochemical analysis,GIS, and field data in southern Wadi Qena,Egypt

An integrated approach using hydrogeochemical analysis, remote sensing, GIS, and field data was employed to characterize the groundwater resources in southern Wadi Qena, Egypt. Various thematic maps showing topography, lineaments, wadi deposits, slope, and stream networks were combined through GIS analysis to discriminate groundwater potential zones on the valley floor. The resulting map classifies the area into five groups of groundwater potentiality from very high to very low zones, supported by the groundwater level, well locations, and by the results of previous geophysical studies. Thirty-seven groundwater well data were tested from the Quaternary and Nubian Sandstone aquifers and analyzed for physio-chemical parameters. Results of hydrochemical analysis show that water quality varies widely through the aquifers, and groundwater in the Quaternary aquifer shows the highest salinity values and a predominance of Na and Cl in water chemical facies. Overlay GIS maps of alkalinity (SAR and RSC) and salinity hazards (EC and Cl) of the Quaternary aquifer were prepared. The resulting maps show that samples do not present an alkalinity hazard in most areas but are potentially salinity hazard. Therefore, the water is fit for agricultural use with certain restrictions, but is not suitable for direct human consumption because it is either very hard or too saline.     

Groundwater classification using multivariate statistical methods: Southern Ghana

This study demonstrates the strength of R-mode factor analysis and Q-mode hierarchical cluster analysis in determining spatial groundwater salinity groups in southeastern Ghana. Three hundred and eighty three (383) groundwater samples were taken from six hydrogeological terrains and surface water bodies and analyzed for the concentrations of the major ions, electrical conductivity and pH. Q-mode hierarchical cluster analysis and R-mode factor analysis were respectively used to spatially classify groundwater samples and determine the probable sources of variation in groundwater salinity. The quality of groundwater for irrigation was then determined using three major indices. The analyses revealed two major sources of variation in groundwater salinity: silicate mineral weathering on one hand, and seawater intrusion and anthropogenic contamination on the other. A plot of the factor scores for the two major sources of variation in the salinity revealed trends which can be used in hydrogeological mapping and assist in drilling potable water boreholes in southeastern Ghana. This study also revealed four major spatial groundwater groups: low salinity, acidic groundwaters which are mainly derived from the Birimian and Togo Series aquifers; low salinity, moderate to neutral pH groundwaters which draw membership mainly from samples of the Voltaian, Buem and Cape Coast granitoids; very high salinity waters which are not suitable for most domestic and irrigation purposes and are mainly from the Keta Basin aquifers; and intermediate salinity groundwaters consisting of groundwater from the Keta basin aquifers with minor contributions from the other major terrains. The major water type identified in this study is the Ca–Mg–HCO₃ type, which degrades into predominantly Na–Cl–SO₄ more saline groundwaters towards the coast.     

Hydrochemical and statistical studies of the groundwater salinization in Mediterranean arid zones: case of the Jerba coastal aquifer in southeast Tunisia

Coastal aquifers are considered as major sources for freshwater supply worldwide, especially in arid zones. The weak rainfall as well as the intensive extraction of groundwater from coastal aquifers reduce freshwater budget and create local water aquifer depression, causing both seawater intrusion and a threat to groundwater. This phenomenon was observed in the Jerba Island which is located in southeast Tunisia. Jerba??s unconfined aquifer shows high values of groundwater salinity reaching, locally, 17?g/l and a strong contrast between some zones of the aquifer. High pumping rates and weak recharge disturb the natural equilibrium between fresh and saline water causing water salinization in most areas of the island. This study aims at establishing the salinity map of the aquifer and identifying the origin of groundwater salinization. The salinity map shows that zones characterized by low groundwater salinity are located in the center of the study area. High groundwater salinities are observed near the coast and in some parts having low topographic and piezometric levels. Groundwater geochemical characterization, and Br/Cl and Na/Cl ratios suggest that the origin of abnormal salinity is seawater intrusion. Considering groundwater salinity values and Br concentrations, a seawater intrusion map is established. It shows that many areas of the unconfined aquifer are contaminated by mixed groundwater and seawater. The statistical analysis demonstrates that high mineralization of the groundwater is due to gypsum and carbonate dissolution coupled with the mixed groundwater and seawater in many areas.     

Hydrochemical assessment of groundwater from shallow aquifers in parts of Wadi Al Hamad,Madinah, Saudi Arabia

The present study was carried out in the Mulaylih area which forms a part of Wadi Al Hamad in the Madinah Province of Saudi Arabia. Thirty groundwater samples from agricultural farms were collected and analyzed for various physio-chemical parameters including trace elements. The area is occupied by the Quaternary alluvium deposits which form shallow unconfined aquifers. Evaporation and ion exchange are the major processes which control the major ion chemistry of the area. The extreme aridity has results in high total dissolved solid values (average of 9793.47 mg/l). Trace element concentrations are low and are mainly attributed to geogenic sources (silicate weathering). Na-Cl groundwater type is the main hydrochemical facies found in the area. The waters are found to be oversaturated with calcite/aragonite and dolomite. The average nitrate concentration was found to be 134.10 mg/l and is much higher than the WHO recommended limit of 50 mg/l in drinking water. Their high values are mainly associated with the application of N-fertilizers on the agricultural farms. The average fluoride concentration in the study was found to be 1.54 mg/l. The relation between F and Cl and Cl and Na reveals that the fluoride concentrations are mainly attributed to geogenic sources. A comparison of the groundwater quality with the Saudi drinking water standards shows that the water is unfit for drinking. The high salinity and sodicity of the groundwater make it unfit for irrigation. Principal component analysis resulted in extraction of four principal components accounting for 79.5% of the total data variability and supports the fact that the natural hydrochemical processes (evaporation and ion exchange) control the overall groundwater chemistry.     

Hydrochemistry of a complex volcano-sedimentary aquifer using major ions and environmental isotopes data: Dalha basalts aquifer, southwest of Republic of Djibouti

In the Republic of Djibouti (Horn of Africa), fractured volcanic aquifers are the main water resources. The country undergoes an arid climate. Alluvial aquifers exist in the wadis (intermittent streams) valleys and, in relation with volcanic aquifers, form complex volcano-sedimentary systems. Due to increasing water demands, groundwater resources are overexploited and require a rigorous management. This paper is focused on the Dalha basalts aquifer, located in the Dikhil area (Southwest of Djibouti). This aquifer is of vital importance for this area. Hydrochemical data and isotopic tracers (¹⁸O and ²H) were used to identify factors and phenomena governing the groundwater’s mineralization. The Piper diagram shows complex water types. Results from multivariate statistical analyses highlight three water families according to their locations: (1) groundwater characterized by low ionic concentrations located at the wadis zones; (2) groundwater characterized by moderate salinity and (3) highly mineralized waters mainly flowing in the eastern and central part of the study area, in volcanic aquifers. Results from scatter plots, especially Na versus Cl and Br versus Cl, suggest that the origin of more saline waters is not from dissolution of halite. The δ¹⁸O and δ²H data indicate that the groundwater flowing in the alluvial aquifer is of meteoric origin and fast percolation of rainwater occurs in the volcanic aquifers. These findings provide a preliminary understanding of the overall functioning of this complex volcano-sedimentary system. Additional investigations (pumping tests, numerical modeling) are in progress to achieve a more comprehensive understanding of this system.     

Hydrogeological investigation of shallow aquifers in an arid data-scarce coastal region (El Daba’a,northwestern Egypt)

Hydrogeological investigations in arid regions are particularly important to support sustainable development. The study area, El Daba’a in northwestern Egypt, faces scarce water resources as a result of reported climate change that particularly affects the southern Mediterranean coast and increases stress on the local groundwater reserves. This change in climate affects the area in terms of drought, over-pumping and unregulated exploration of groundwater for irrigation purposes. The hydrogeological investigation is based on a multidisciplinary data-layer analysis that includes geomorphology, geology, slope, drainage lines, soil type, structural lineaments, subsurface data, stable isotopes, and chemical analyses. The study area contains Pleistocene and middle Miocene marine limestone aquifers. Based on lithology and microfacies analysis, the middle Miocene aquifer is subdivided into two water-bearing zones. The area is affected by sets of faults and anticline folds, and these structures are associated with fractures and joints that increase permeability and facilitate the recharge of groundwater. Stable isotope data indicate that groundwater of both the Pleistocene and middle Miocene aquifers is recharged by modern precipitation. The high salinity values observed in some groundwater wells that tap both aquifers could be attributed to leaching and dissolution processes of marine salts from the aquifers’ marine limestone matrix. In addition, human activities can also contribute to an increase in groundwater salinity. A future water exploration strategy, based on the results from the multidisciplinary data-layer analysis, is proposed for the area. The derived scientific approach is transferable to other arid coastal areas with comparable conditions.     

Hydrochemistry in coastal aquifer of southwest Bangladesh: origin of salinity

In the coastal region of Bangladesh, groundwater is mainly used for domestic and agricultural purposes, but salinization of many groundwater resources limits its suitability for human consumption and practical application. This paper reports the results of a study that has mapped the salinity distribution in different aquifer layers up to a depth of 300 m in a region bordering the Bay of Bengal based on the main hydrochemistry and has investigated the origin of the salinity using Cl/Br ratios of the samples. The subsurface consists of a sequence of deltaic sediments with an alternation of more sandy and clayey sections in which several aquifer layers can be recognized. The main hydrochemistry shows different main water types in the different aquifers, indicating varying stages of freshening or salinization processes. The most freshwater, soft NaHCO₃-type water with Cl concentrations mostly below 100 mg/l, is found in the deepest aquifer at 200–300 m below ground level (b.g.l.), in which the fresh/saltwater interface is pushed far to the south. Salinity is a main problem in the shallow aquifer systems, where Cl concentrations rise to nearly 8000 mg/l and the groundwater is mostly brackish NaCl water. Investigation of the Cl/Br ratios has shown that the source of the salinity in the deep aquifer is mixing with old connate seawater and that the saline waters in the more shallow aquifers do not originate from old connate water or direct seawater intrusion, but are derived from the dissolution of evaporite salts. These must have been formed in a tidal flat under influence of a strong seasonal precipitation pattern. Long dry seasons with high evaporation rates have evaporated seawater from inundated gullies and depressions, leading to salt precipitation, while subsequent heavy monsoon rains have dissolved the formed salts, and the solution has infiltrated in the subsoil, recharging groundwater.     

Assessment of groundwater vulnerability using a specific vulnerability method: Case of Maritime Djeffara shallow aquifer (Southeastern Tunisia)

Groundwater resources are vulnerable to contamination especially in shallow aquifers. The aquifer hydrogeological parameters and the Land Uses category combinations lead to subdivide areas according to their contamination likelihood. In arid and semi-arid regions, shallow aquifers are more exposed to groundwater contamination due to high population densities (extensive uses) and agricultural activities (nitrate contamination). Moreover, these regions are characterized by low rainfall and high evaporation. Furthermore, the spread of farmland, industrial and domestic sectors, is the principal contaminant producer which threats the groundwater quality. To protect these limited resources, the groundwater vulnerability assessment was developed in Maritime Djeffara shallow aquifer (Southeastern Tunisia). The study area is essentially occupied by agricultural areas (intensive use of chemical fertilizers) in addition to the discharge of industrial zones. The main objective of this study is to assess the aquifer vulnerability using the Susceptibility Index (SI) method as a specific vulnerability model. The results show that the study area is classified into five classes of vulnerability: very low, low, medium, high, and very high (1.54, 20, 41.54, 35.9, and 1.02%, respectively) with an uneven spatial distribution. The risk results exhibit three degrees: low, moderate, and high. The validation of the vulnerability model was performed by using salinity values and nitrate concentrations with a correlation coefficient of about 57 and 55%, respectively. This study could serve as a scientific basis for sustainable land use planning and groundwater management in the study area.     

Configuration of the limestone aquifers in the central part of Egypt using electrical measurements

The Western Desert of Egypt is an area of natural expansion for agricultural, industrial, and civil activities. This expansion has led to a great demand for groundwater. In the central part of Egypt, on the western limestone plateau, vertical electrical sounding and borehole geophysical logging were conducted to delineate aquifer boundaries. The measurements were interpreted using the lithological information from the drilled wells as a constraining factor. Fractured chalky limestone sediments represent the main aquifer, which is covered by sand and gravel deposits and which rests directly on partially saturated and highly resistive massive limestone. Discontinuous clay layers, which overlie the aquifer unit, were detected in the southern part of the study area as well as a relatively thin marly limestone layer in the northern part. The integrated analyses carried out represent a significant and cost-effective method for delineating the main aquifer in this area. In turn, future well locations can be placed with more confidence than before, in accordance with the evaluation of the potentiality of the groundwater aquifers in the area. Although the groundwater is normally brackish, it can serve the acute demands for water, especially for agricultural purposes.     

Studying the impacts of groundwater evolution on the environment,west Qena city,Egypt

The current research has been conducted to evaluate groundwater aquifers qualitatively in the area located in the Western side of Qena city. The Quaternary aquifer represents the main groundwater source in the study area. It exists under unconfined to semiconfined conditions at depths varying between 4 m due North and 80 m in the South. The chemical analyses of the groundwater samples indicate that 77% of the total samples are fresh and 20% are brackish, while only 3% are saline. In addition, the iso-salinity contour map indicates that the salinity increases towards the central and northern parts of the study area. The total and permanent hardness increase as water salinity increases and vice versa in case of temporary hardness in the groundwater samples. The chemical water types and the ion ratios indicate meteoric origin of groundwater as well as the dissolution of terrestrial and marine salts. The contribution of recent recharge from the River Nile to a few groundwater wells in the study area varies from low to high. In addition, the most recharge sources are from the precipitation. Nitrate concentrations in groundwater increase towards the central and Northern areas significantly elevated in response to increasing anthropogenic land uses. Much of the solutes and physicochemical parameters in these waters are under the undesirable limits of World Health Organization (WHO) for drinking purpose, and a plot of sodium adsorption ratio versus EC shows that about 23% of the groundwater samples are good water quality, about 45% of groundwater samples are moderate quality, and 23% of the groundwater samples are intermediate water class, while the rest of samples (9%) are out of the range.     

Assessment of groundwater quantity and quality and saltwater intrusion in the Damghan basin,Iran

This study describes the groundwater quantity and quality conditions in the Damghan aquifer in Iran. The quantitative analysis of data obtained from observation wells indicates overexploitation of groundwater during recent years, which has resulted in deterioration of water quality. The mean water level has declined about 7.4 m between years of 1966 and 2010. The hydrochemical facies of water collected from sampling wells were investigated though Piper and Chadha diagrams, and the general dominant type of water in the study area was determined as Na-Cl. The quality assessment examined the suitability of groundwater for drinking and irrigation purposes. Compared to the World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines for drinking water, all regions were found to have unpotable groundwater. Furthermore, unsuitability of groundwater for agricultural applications due to high salinity was observed through analysis of major quality indicators. The saltwater intrusion was investigated by ionic ratio analyses and was determined to be the main factor contributing to high salinity and deterioration of the groundwater quality in the Damghan basin.     

Water quality for different uses in the main groundwater bodies of the Guadalquivir River Watershed,Atlantic Basin,Spain

This work was made to asses the groundwater quality in relation to agricultural uses and/or public supply in the main groundwater bodies (GWB) of the Guadalquivir River Basin (southern Spain) according to the recommendations of the Water Framework Directive. The study was made for both carbonate and sedimentary-rock/alluvial GWBs of the Basin in order to detect variations in the groundwater quality as a function of the hydrogeological functioning, among others. Groundwater samples were collected from selected and representative wells and drills in each GWB. The results obtained from the analyses of major ions, pH, SC₂₅ and nitrate reveal that the groundwater in carbonate aquifers is suitable for both agricultural and domestic uses according to the FAO classification. The quality of water from sedimentary-rock and alluvial GWBs is medium for agricultural purposes and inappropriate for human supplies in most cases due to excessive content of chloride, sulphate and nitrate. The use of well-known hydrochemical indicators such as SAR, RSC or Gibb’s ratio allowed us to predict groundwater quality in the main GWBs of the Guadalquivir watershed. Therefore, this methodology proves to be a useful tool to correctly manage and find strategic water reservoirs in an area that is going to be particularly threatened by climate change in the near future.     

Identifying sources of salinization using hydrochemical and isotopic techniques, Konarsiah, Iran

Konarsiah salt diapir is situated in the Simply Folded Zone of the Zagros Mountain, south Iran. Eight small permanent brine springs emerge from the Konarsiah salt body, with average total dissolved solids of 326.7 g/L. There are numerous brackish to saline springs emerging from the alluvial and karst aquifers adjacent to the diapir. Concerning emergence of Konarsiah diapir in the study area, halite dissolution is the most probable source of salinity in the adjacent aquifers. However, other sources including evaporation and deep brines through deep Mangerak Fault are possible. The water samples of the study area were classified based on their water-type, salinity, and the trend of the ions concentration curves. The result of this classification is in agreement with the hydrogeological setting of the study area. The hydrochemical and isotopic evaluations show that the groundwater samples are the result of mixing of four end members; Gachsaran sulfate water, Sarvak and Asmari carbonate fresh waters, and diapir brine. The molar ratios of Na/Cl, Li/Cl, Br/Cl, and SO₄/Cl; and isotopic signature of the mixed samples justify a groundwater mixing model for the aquifers adjacent to the salt diapir. The share of brine in each adjacent aquifer was calculated using Cl mass balance. In addition, concentrations of 34 trace elements were determined to characterize the diapir brine and to identify the possible tracers of salinity sources in the mixed water samples. B, Mn, Rb, Sr, Cs, Tl, and Te were identified as trace elements evidencing contact of groundwater with the salt diapir.     

Hydrochemical investigation of water from the Pleistocene wells and springs, Jericho area, Palestine

Rising salinity levels is one of the significant signs of water-quality degradation in groundwater. The alluvial Pleistocene wells in the Jericho area, Palestine show high salinity and a high susceptibility to contamination. Future exploitation and management of the water resources under these conditions will require an in-depth understanding of the sources and mechanisms of contamination. The Jericho area is located in the basin of the Jordan Valley. The basin is underlain by alluvial deposits of soil, sand and gravel of Quaternary units Q1 and Q2, and marl clay and evaporites of the upper part of unit Q2. This paper deals with the source of salinity in the wells penetrating these units, using hydrochemical tracers. The study reveals three main zones of different salinity by using different diagnostic hydrochemical fingerprinting as tracers for elucidating the sources of salinity. It was concluded that the most probable sources of salinity are (1) the geological formations of the region, which form inter-fingering layers of both the Samara and Lisan formations of Pleistocene age, where the eastern Arab Project aquifers show the highest amount of sulphate. The location and geological formation of these wells within the Lisan suggested that the source of high sulphate content is the dissociation of gypsum. (2) The NaCl water within the same area may also be upwelling from a deep brine aquifer or from a fresh-water aquifer which contains salt-bearing rocks with particles becoming finer from west to east. This noticeable high TDS to the east should be affected by the rate of pumping from the upper shallow aquifer, especially in the wells of the Arab Project which are in continuous pumping during the year. (3) The third possible source of salinity is from anthropogenic influences. This can be easily shown by the increment of nitrate, bromide and sulphate, depending on whether the location of the well is coincident with urban or agricultural areas. This reflects the addition of agricultural chemical effluents or sewer pollution from adjacent septic tanks which are mainly constructed in top gravel in the Samara layer. Further studies are required, using different geochemical and isotopic techniques, to confirm these suggested salinity sources.The revised version was published online in March 2005 with corrections to the order of the authors.