Measuring Flow Rate in Crystalline Bedrock Wells Using the Dissolved Oxygen Alteration Method

Determination of vertical flow rates in a fractured bedrock well can aid in planning and implementing hydraulic tests, water quality sampling, and improving interpretations of water quality data. Although flowmeters are highly accurate in flow rate measurement, the high cost and logistics may be limiting. In this study the dissolved oxygen alteration method (DOAM) is expanded upon as a low‐cost alternative to determine vertical flow rates in crystalline bedrock wells. The method entails altering the dissolved oxygen content in the wellbore through bubbler aeration, and monitoring the vertical advective movement of the dissolved oxygen over time. Measurements were taken for upward and downward flows, and under ambient and pumping conditions. Vertical flow rates from 0.06 to 2.30 Lpm were measured. To validate the method, flow rates determined with the DOAM were compared to pump discharge rates and found to be in agreement within 2.5%.     

Accuracy of Flowmeters Measuring Horizontal Flow in Fractured-Rock Simulators

Laboratory evaluations of flowmeter response to flow in fractured-rock simulators are needed to improve understanding of data collected in field settings. The ability of flowmeters to accurately measure the velocity and direction of water flowing between parallel plates was used as a surrogate for instrument response in fractured-rock aquifers. A colloidal borescope flowmeter and a heat-pulse flowmeter were deployed in a fractured rock simulator with 4-inch and 6-inch inner-diameter, uncased wells with 0.39- and 1.0-inch fracture apertures and groundwater velocities from 35 to 975 ft/d. The colloidal borescope measurements and applied velocities were positively correlated in all wells and apertures (the coefficient of determination [r²] = 0.61–0.89) and most accurately measured direction at higher velocities. The mean directional error in colloidal borescope measurements was less than 17° in 6-inch wells and 31° in the 4-inch wells at velocities between 92 and 958 ft/d. Heat-pulse flowmeter measurements were 0.001 to 0.004 times less than applied rates and may indicate that water was moving around rather than through the instrument's integrated packer. The mean directional error of heat-pulse flowmeter measurements were about 18 and 42° in the 0.39- and 1.0-inch fractures, respectively, for groundwater velocities within the manufacturer's suggested range of application (0.5–100 ft/d). Measurements made at vertical increments and fracture positions in the well using the colloidal borescope indicate that laminar flow occurs within the central 50% of the fracture but measurements above or below are likely affected by eddy currents.     

A Simplified Solution Using Izbash's Equation for Non-Darcian Flow in a Constant Rate Pumping Test

This paper derives an equivalent of Darcian Theis solution for non-Darcian flow induced by constant rate pumping of a well in a confined aquifer. The derivation, which is valid at later times only, is original. It utilizes Izbash's equation. This introduces an additional parameter to Darcian condition, namely, empirical exponent. The solution is a non-Drcian equivalent of Jacob straight line method for analyzing pumping tests at late times. It can be used to determine aquifer parameters: storativity, analogous hydraulic conductivity, and empirical exponent. However, while the Jacob method requires a minimum of only one pumping test with one observation well, the additional parameter in the present solution means that a minimum of two observation wells in one test or two pumping tests at different rates with one observation well are required. The derived solution is applied to a case study at Plomeur in Brittany, France, and is shown to provide a practical and efficient method for analyzing pumping tests where non-Darcian groundwater flow occurs.     

Accuracy of Flowmeters Measuring Horizontal Groundwater Flow in an Unconsolidated Aquifer Simulator

Borehole flowmeters that measure horizontal flow velocity and direction of groundwater flow are being increasingly applied to a wide variety of environmental problems. This study was carried out to evaluate the measurement accuracy of several types of flowmeters in an unconsolidated aquifer simulator. Flowmeter response to hydraulic gradient, aquifer properties, and well‐screen construction was measured during 2003 and 2005 at the U.S. Geological Survey Hydrologic Instrumentation Facility in Bay St. Louis, Mississippi. The flowmeters tested included a commercially available heat‐pulse flowmeter, an acoustic Doppler flowmeter, a scanning colloidal borescope flowmeter, and a fluid‐conductivity logging system. Results of the study indicated that at least one flowmeter was capable of measuring borehole flow velocity and direction in most simulated conditions. The mean error in direction measurements ranged from 15.1° to 23.5° and the directional accuracy of all tested flowmeters improved with increasing hydraulic gradient. The range of Darcy velocities examined in this study ranged 4.3 to 155 ft/d. For many plots comparing the simulated and measured Darcy velocity, the squared correlation coefficient (r²) exceeded 0.92. The accuracy of velocity measurements varied with well construction and velocity magnitude. The use of horizontal flowmeters in environmental studies appears promising but applications may require more than one type of flowmeter to span the range of conditions encountered in the field. Interpreting flowmeter data from field settings may be complicated by geologic heterogeneity, preferential flow, vertical flow, constricted screen openings, and nonoptimal screen orientation.     

Measuring river velocities using GPS River Flow Tracers (GRiFTers)

Existing methods of measuring flow velocities in natural rivers are largely based on series of point measurements. Acquisition of these data can be time consuming and difficult, especially in high flow conditions. This paper introduces the use of GPS drifters (termed GRiFTers) to measure surface flow velocities in a 400 m reach of the River Swale, UK. Over 10 000 measurements were made in a 3 hour period and aggregated over a 2 m grid to generate a genuine distributed representation of flow across the reach. The technique shows great promise to provide new insights into flow patterns over long reaches of rivers, over a range of flow conditions, and may also provide valuable data for numerical model validation. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Comparison of Downhole and Surface Sampling for the Determination of Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) in Ground Water

The relative precision and accuracy of sampling and analysis methods for the determination of trace concentrations of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in ground water were compared. Samples were collected from a well containing nanogram-per-liter (ng/L) to microgram-per-liter (μg/L) levels of VOCs. A Keck helical rotor submersible pump was used to collect samples at the surface for analysis by purge and trap (P&T) and for analysis by adsorption/thermal desorption (ATD). Downhole samples were collected by passing water through an ATD cartridge. Although slight spontaneous bubble outgassing occurred when the water was brought to the surface, the relative precisions and comparabilities of the surface and downhole methods were generally found to be equivalent from a statistical point of view. A main conclusion of this study is that bringing sample water to the surface for placement in VOC vials (and subsequent analysis by P&T) can be done reliably under many circumstances. However, care must still be taken to prevent adsorption losses and cross contamination. Samples subject to strong bubble outgassing will need to be handled in a special fashion (e.g., by downhole ATD) to minimize volatilization losses. Additionally, the higher sensitivity of the ATD method allows lower detection limits than are possible with P&T. For example, several compounds present at the ng/L level could be determined with confidence by ATD, but not by P&T.     

利用井下摆近震记录研究华北盆地沉积层速度结构

收集了2015—2018年首都圈地区M1.0以上地震的波形数据,选取近场井下地震计观测记录,通过拾取直达P、S波及相应地表反射波的到时并测量其到时差,获得了台站下方地壳浅部300 m的P波、S波平均速度,并分析了波速的水平分布特征,结果表明,华北盆地近地表P波平均速度约为1.98 km/s,S波平均速度约为0.46 km/s,平均波速比约4.3;利用不同速度模型对27个地震事件进行定位,结果显示:沉积层模型可有效改善华北盆地地震定位精度。     

Flow resistance equation for rills

In this paper, a new flow resistance equation for rill flow was deduced applying dimensional analysis and self‐similarity theory. At first, the incomplete self‐similarity hypothesis was used for establishing the flow velocity distribution whose integration gives the theoretical expression of the Darcy–Weisbach friction factor. Then the deduced theoretical resistance equation was tested by some measurements of flow velocity, water depth, cross section area, wetted perimeter, and bed slope carried out in 106 reaches of some rills shaped on an experimental plot. A relationship between the velocity profile, the channel slope, and the flow Froude number was also established. The analysis showed that the Darcy–Weisbach friction factor can be accurately estimated by the proposed theoretical approach based on a power–velocity profile.     

Generalized Radial Flow in Synthetic Flow Systems

Traditional analysis methods used to determine hydraulic properties from pumping tests work well in many porous media aquifers, but they often do not work in heterogeneous and fractured‐rock aquifers, producing non‐plausible and erroneous results. The generalized radial flow model developed by Barker (1988) can reveal information about heterogeneity characteristics and aquifer geometry from pumping test data by way of a flow dimension parameter. The physical meaning of non‐integer flow dimensions has long been a subject of debate and research. We focus on understanding and interpreting non‐radial flow through high permeability conduits within fractured aquifers. We develop and simulate flow within idealized non‐radial flow conduits and expand on this concept by simulating pumping in non‐fractal random fields with specific properties that mimic persistent sub‐radial flow responses. Our results demonstrate that non‐integer flow dimensions can arise from non‐fractal geometries within aquifers. We expand on these geometric concepts and successfully simulate pumping in random fields that mimic well‐test responses seen in the Culebra Dolomite above the Waste Isolation Pilot Plant.     

Bootstrap Calibration and Uncertainty Estimation of Downhole NMR Hydraulic Conductivity Estimates in an Unconsolidated Aquifer

Characterization of hydraulic conductivity (K) in aquifers is critical for evaluation, management, and remediation of groundwater resources. While estimates of K have been traditionally obtained using hydraulic tests over discrete intervals in wells, geophysical measurements are emerging as an alternative way to estimate this parameter. Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) logging, a technology once largely applied to characterization of deep consolidated rock petroleum reservoirs, is beginning to see use in near‐surface unconsolidated aquifers. Using a well‐known rock physics relationship—the Schlumberger Doll Research (SDR) equation—K and porosity can be estimated from NMR water content and relaxation time. Calibration of SDR parameters is necessary for this transformation because NMR relaxation properties are, in part, a function of magnetic mineralization and pore space geometry, which are locally variable quantities. Here, we present a statistically based method for calibrating SDR parameters that establishes a range for the estimated parameters and simultaneously estimates the uncertainty of the resulting K values. We used co‐located logging NMR and direct K measurements in an unconsolidated fluvial aquifer in Lawrence, Kansas, USA to demonstrate that K can be estimated using logging NMR to a similar level of uncertainty as with traditional direct hydraulic measurements in unconsolidated sediments under field conditions. Results of this study provide a benchmark for future calibrations of NMR to obtain K in unconsolidated sediments and suggest a method for evaluating uncertainty in both K and SDR parameter values.     

A New Equation Solver for Modeling Turbulent Flow in Coupled Matrix‐Conduit Flow Models

Karst aquifers represent dual flow systems consisting of a highly conductive conduit system embedded in a less permeable rock matrix. Hybrid models iteratively coupling both flow systems generally consume much time, especially because of the nonlinearity of turbulent conduit flow. To reduce calculation times compared to those of existing approaches, a new iterative equation solver for the conduit system is developed based on an approximated Newton–Raphson expression and a Gauß–Seidel or successive over‐relaxation scheme with a single iteration step at the innermost level. It is implemented and tested in the research code CAVE but should be easily adaptable to similar models such as the Conduit Flow Process for MODFLOW‐2005. It substantially reduces the computational effort as demonstrated by steady‐state benchmark scenarios as well as by transient karst genesis simulations. Water balance errors are found to be acceptable in most of the test cases. However, the performance and accuracy may deteriorate under unfavorable conditions such as sudden, strong changes of the flow field at some stages of the karst genesis simulations.     

黄土地区地铁车站数值模型及测试位置研究

介绍了黄土地区地铁车站振动台模型试验的测试设备与数据采集系统;基于ABAQUS有限元分析软件,采用有限元-无限元耦合的建模方法,对地震作用下黄土地区地铁车站的加速度反应、位移反应、应变反应,以及土-结构相互作用的接触土压力进行了研究。结果表明,结构构件交叉部位的应变反应及接触土压力较大。最后,根据地铁车站地震反应特点,研究了黄土地区地铁车站振动台模型试验中传感器的布置原则和布置方案,为试验获得可靠数据提供了重要保证。同时,本文得到的黄土地区地铁车站地震反应特点和规律,可为黄土介质模型试验及深度数值模型分析提供参考。     

Q值测量的等效声阻抗法

回顾了实验室中超声波测量Ｑ值的四种常用方法：上升时间法、回声法、频谱振比法和波形反演法。在综合了回声法和频谱振幅比法优点的基础上,提出等效声阻抗法。该方法借助于参考样品,利用其一、二次波的振幅谱,计算换能器和耦合层的等效声阻抗,进而由等测样品的一、二次波振幅普计算其衰减,求得其与频率有关的Ｑ值。对振幅谱进行了扩散校正,并利用方法一了有机玻璃和饱水岩石样品的Ｑ值。对该方法的可靠性也进行了讨论。     

Groundwater Flow Analysis for Inclined Aquifers

Sedimentary deposits that have water in subsurface groundwater system are not often completely horizontal because of the geological features such as: bedding and folding. These deposits typically overlay on sloped impervious layers, and therefore; additional research is necessary for these situations. In this research an analytical model is presented for groundwater flow on inclined impermeable layer. The presented model is preferable to the Paolowsky method regarding its applicability and accuracy. The Dupuit's assumption is used for the formulation. The presented model can be generalized for the situation, having surficial infiltration into and exfiltration from the groundwater system. Several problems of different slope situations and boundary conditions are addressed by the presented model and the results are shown here. The model is compared with numerical model Seep/w and good agreements are obtained when possible.     

A Falling-Head Method for Measuring Intertidal Sediment Hydraulic Conductivity

This paper presents an in situ falling-head method for measuring hydraulic conductivity of beach sediments in tidal environment. A polyvinyl chloride (PVC) standpipe was vertically pushed into the submerged beach sediments so that its lower part was filled by a sediment column. During the experiment, the sediments were submerged by sea water and the standpipe top was higher than the sea level. The pipe was fully filled with sea water at the beginning of the experiment. Then the water level time series inside and outside the standpipe were recorded. Analytical solutions were derived to describe the relation among the sediment's hydraulic conductivity and the water levels inside and outside the standpipe and used to analyze the experiment data obtained from the intertidal zone of Puqian Bay, Haikou, Hainan Province, China. The water levels predicted by the analytical solution agreed very well with all the experiment data. Experiments for horizontal hydraulic conductivity estimation were also conducted using L-shaped standpipe which bends from vertical to horizontal in the beach sediments. The averaged hydraulic conductivity anisotropy ratio at the study area is about 2.9. After each in situ experiment, the sediments in the standpipe were stored in a plastic box and transported to university laboratory to measure the hydraulic conductivity using falling-head method. It is found that the in situ hydraulic conductivity averages one order of magnitude greater than the laboratory one, indicating that the original beach surface sediments were loose due to tidal and wave actions and that the samples were significantly compacted during the transportation to laboratory.     

重视短程形变网观测技术的跟踪

地形变观测是利用大地测量的有关理论与方法,以较高的精度获得我国大陆地壳运动与变形的信息,其中最具有我国特点的,就是跨断层测量。多年来大量断层活动规律性的观测与研究,充分显示,跨断层测量连续观测资料不仅为地震前兆的发现提供了有价值的论据,而且为断层微动态动力学研究提供了丰实的资料和动态图象。此外,在时间上填补了大面积形变复测周期过长的空档,而在空间上弥补了形变台站覆盖面不足的缺陷。     

QY型倾角仪瞬态反应测试方法的研究

本文介绍了QY型倾角仪的输入不同持续时间的单个半正弦流和单个方波情况下瞬态反应的测试方法及测试结果并与仿真结果进行了比较，证明了该仪器可用于动倾角和动态挠度的测量。     

A Method for Evaluating Flow Characteristics in the Coastal Zone

The main factors that control flow characteristics in the coastal zone are discussed. A method is proposed for evaluating flow characteristics and wave transformation.