Transtensional tectonics induced by oblique reactivation of previous lithospheric anisotropies during the Late Triassic to Early Jurassic rifting in the Neuquén basin: Insights from analog models

The goal of this study was to determine the main factors that controlled the kinematic evolution and the structural architecture developed during the Late Triassic to Early Jurassic rifting that led to the opening of the Neuquén basin in the southwestern sector of Gondwana. We carried out a series of analog models to simulate an extensional system with a bent geometry similar to the northeastern border of the basin. In different experiments, we varied the extension direction between NNE (N10°E) and NE (N45°E) orientations, inducing rift systems with different degrees of obliquity in each sector of the extended area. We compared the kinematic evolution and the final structural architecture observed in the experiments with data from two selected representative areas of the basin: (1) the Atuel depocenter, situated in the northern Andean sector, and (2) the Entre Lomas area, situated in the northeastern Neuquén Embayment. In both cases, the good match between the field and subsurface data and the results of the analog models supports a NNE orientation of the regional extension (N30°E–N20°E) during the synrift stage. Our experimental results suggest that lithospheric weakness zones of NNW to NW trend could have controlled and localized the extension in the Neuquén basin. These previous anisotropies were linked to the sutures and rheological contrasts generated during the collision of terranes against the southwestern margin of Gondwana during the Paleozoic, as well as further modifications of the thermo-mechanical state of the lithosphere during the Late Paleozoic to Early Mesozoic evolution.     

The role of rifting in the evolution of the continental margin of Eastern Asia: Geophysical evidence

The role of rift processes is analysed in the structural evolution of the continental margins of Eastern Asia including the Indo-China Peninsula and North China plain. Paleoreconstructions were made for the Indo-China Peninsula to characterize individual stages of rifting covering the Late Cretaceous-Eocene, Oligocene-Middle Miocene and Late Pliocene-Early Quaternary epochs. The rifting of continental margins occurred synchronously with spreading processes in marginal seas, whereas the formation of rift structures in the North China plain was concurrent with the formation of a deep-water basin of the Philippine Sea. The development of asthenospheric diapire led to crustal extension and was responsible for the formation of rift structures in marginal seas and continental margins.     

Mitochondrial DNA provides evidence of a double origin for the stone crayfish Austropotamobius torrentium in the Elbe basin

The stone crayfish Austropotamobius torrentium is the smallest native European crayfish, restricted to central and southeast Europe. Northeast boundary of its range is located within the Elbe basin but considerable uncertainties existed regarding its status in this area. Until recently, known stone crayfish populations in the Elbe basin were very scattered and human translocations have been implicated in such distribution pattern. Discoveries of additional populations in the Czech Republic and Saxony (east Germany) nevertheless suggest that the species may have been more widespread there. We provide data on genetic variation (based on 181 sequences of the mitochondrial COI gene) of 20 representative populations from the Elbe basin (both from the Czech Republic and Saxony). We tested whether the haplotype variation is consistent with a scenario of natural dispersal or whether long-range transport has been involved. All analysed individuals from the easternmost, geographically isolated Czech stone crayfish population carried a haplotype previously recorded only in Slovenia and its vicinity; it is therefore likely that such population has been introduced by humans. In contrast, all remaining studied populations were dominated by a haplotype widespread in adjacent regions of species’ distribution in Germany, and additional haplotypes differing by point mutations were occasionally detected. This is consistent with a scenario of a postglacial colonization from Bavaria (southeast Germany). Our study provides evidence for a double origin of stone crayfish populations in the upper Elbe basin, with both natural and anthropogenic factors likely affecting the present diversity and distribution of this species.     

Geodetic evidence for rifting in Afar a brittle-elastic model of the behaviour of the lithosphere

An important episode of rifting occurred in November 1978 in southwest Afar, in the first subaerial section of the accreting plate boundary between the African and Arabian plates. Horizontal rifting of more than 2 m took place, with vertical displacements of about 1 m, earthquakes of magnitude up to 5.3, and a fissural volcanic eruption of basaltic lavas. Very precise geodetic measurements were carried out in order to study this crisis and strains of the order of 3 × 10^?4 were measured, both tensile and compressive.This paper presents an analysis of the mechanical behaviour of the lithosphere. It is shown that an elastic-brittle model with a rebound mechanism fits very well the data, and it is suggested that such a model, with magma injection in the resulting open fissures, should be used to describe accretion at plate boundaries.     

Age, origin and geodynamic significance of plagiogranites in lherzolites and gabbros of the Piedmont-Ligurian ocean basin

U-Pb zircon dating, Sr-Nd isotope tracing and major/trace/RE element analyses were performed to constrain the age, origin and geodynamic significance of plagiogranites that intrude lherzolites and gabbros in the Ligurian Alps and the Northern Apennines. In addition, a host Fe-diorite was investigated. Samples from the Ligurian Alps were collected from the Voltri Group and the Sestri-Voltaggio Zone, whereas the plagiogranites from the Northern Apennines were taken in the Bracco unit. All these units have been affected by Alpine metamorphism reaching eclogite facies in the Voltri Group, blueschist degree in the Sestri Voltaggio samples, and prehnite-pumpellyite facies in the Bracco Unit, which has additionally been affected by rodingitization.

U-Pb zircon ages of 150 ± 1, 153 ± 1 and ≈ 156 Ma were obtained, respectively, for two plagiogranites and the host Fe-diorite in the Ligurian Alps, and an age of 153 ± 1 Ma was determined for the plagiogranite in Northern Apennines. Inherited components in zircon and initial Pb in plagioclase indicate mixing of variously differentiated basaltic magmas with small amounts of roughly 1.7–2.1 Ga old continental crust material. REE patterns in both the plagiogranites and the host diorite are characterized by high REE abundance, and moderate LREE enrichment. Nd isotopic compositions lie in the range of N-MORB sources, yielding initial epsilon Nd values between + 8.8 and + 9.7, whereas Sr is isotopically heterogeneous. The geochemical pattern of the plagiogranites and the host Fe-diorite requires melting of a MORB-type mantle source that experienced LREE enrichment shortly before melting. The most likely explanation for such enrichment is the injection of melts derived by small degrees of melting from an adjacent mantle region. The basaltic, LREE-enriched parent magmas generated from this enriched domain have probably undergone up to about 72% of low-pressure fractional crystallization prior to their emplacement into the gabbro-peridotite complex.

The 156–150 Ma magmatism occurred in close relation to normal faulting, sedimentation of breccias, and detachment of the mantle complex from its overlying continental crust, followed by exposure on the ocean floor. This tectono-magmatic event in the Ligurian Alps and the Northern Apennines reflects rifting of the Adriatic-Iberian continental plate segment, preceding wider opening of the Piedmont-Ligurian ocean basin and pillow basalt deposition.     

First evidence of Middle to Late Triassic radiolarians in the Garba mountains,South Sumatra,Indonesia

A Middle to Late Triassic (Ladinian–Carnian) radiolarian fauna was discovered in cherts of the Situlanglang Member of the Garba Formation, South Sumatra, which is generally regarded as of Late Jurassic–Early Cretaceous age. This fauna is characterized by the presence of Annulotriassocampe sulovensis, Triassocampe postdeweveri, Spongotortilispinus tortilis, Poulpus piabyx, Canoptum levis and others. This evidence possibly indicates that the deposition of the Situlanglang cherts took place after the collision of the Sibumasu and East Malaya blocks recorded in the Bentong–Raub Suture in Peninsular Malaysia in Late Permian–Early Triassic times. During the Middle–Late Triassic Sumatra and Peninsular Malaysia consisted of submarine horst and graben structures. It is possible that a submarine graben, the Tuhur basin, whose southern boundary was formerly undefined, extends into South Sumatra, to the area in which the Situlanglang cherts were deposited. The Situlanglang Member is proposed to be a rock unit stratigraphically contemporaneous with those of the Middle–Upper Triassic Kualu and Tuhur Formations in North and Central Sumatra.     

塔里木盆地冷盆热改造的地震学证据

塔里木盆地是我国最大的沉积盆地,对我国油气战略选区具有较大的意义.自震旦系成盆以来,塔里木盆地表现为一个低温的冷盆.在覆盖全盆的20条地震长剖面上,识别出83处特殊的地震反射结构,其特征为同相轴向上凸起呈尖角状,形态为直立或近直立,故名地震反射尖角直立结构.共识别出四种基本类型的地震反射尖角直立结构,平缓型、正常型、巨幅型、刺穿型,两个形态基本一致的基本型紧邻而组合为双相位型,两个或多个不同类型、不同形态的集中于某处则构成复合型.平缓型、正常型、巨幅型、刺穿型依次反映了变形增强的序列,理想状态下该反射结构由深至浅存在从刺穿型至平缓型的渐变序列,故基本类型的划分只是反映某处地震反射尖角直立结构的整体形态特点.地震反射尖角直立结构部位可能发育火成岩,与盆内钻遇火成岩钻井平面分布具有较高的相关度.地幔物质上涌至岩石圈,巨大的上拱能量造成了地层的变形,叠加构造因素的改造,地震反射尖角直立结构正是这一系列作用于地震反射上的响应.地震反射尖角直立结构是"热上涌"作用的产物.有机质的成熟、油气藏的形成和破坏与盆地热作用关系密切,对照塔里木盆地已有的油气田与"尖角直立"地震反射结构的平面分布,发现二者具有较高的相关性.地震反射尖角直立结构所反映的"热上涌"现象,促进了塔里木盆地"冷盆"背景下丰富油气资源的形成.     

Late Permian/early Triassic orogeny in Japan: piling up of nappes, transverse lineation and continental subduction of the Honshu block

Field surveys in the Oga-Atetsu and Yamaguchi areas of Southwest Japan have been conducted in order to precise the structure of the Permian orogen. A stack of nappes is recognized comprising from top to bottom: (1) the Oga nappe which is considered to be a seamount complex, (2) HP Sangun metamorphics, (3) the Permian Yakuno ophiolite, and (4) the Permian detrital Maizuru group which is interpreted as the sedimentary cover of a continental block, called here the Honshu block, outcropping as the Older Granite. This stack of nappes is overthrust by the Paleozoic Hida basement consisting of HT gneisses, granites and late Carboniferous shallow-water sediments. Microtectonic analysis of the Sangun schists shows that the subhorizontal schistosity bearing a submeridian lineation was formed during the synmetamorphic phase. Asymmetric pressure shadows, shear bands and sigmoidal minerals show that the synmetamorphic deformation corresponds to a ductile shear from north to south. The Permian/early Triassic orogeny is interpreted as the result of a collision between the Hida gneiss (or South China block) and the Honshu block, the intervening oceanic area gave rise to southward directed nappes. The Permian orogenic belt extends at least from Taiwan to central Japan.     

Change in tectonic force inferred from basin subsidence: Implications for the dynamical aspects of back-arc rifting in the western Mediterranean

A method has been developed that allows temporal changes in tectonic force during rift basin formation to be inferred from observed tectonic subsidence curves and has been applied to the Gulf of Lions (the Provençal Basin) and the Valencia Trough in order to gain some understanding of the dynamical aspects of back-arc basin rifting in the western Mediterranean Sea. Two distinct tectonic force regimes active at different times during the evolution of each of these back-arc basins are identified. The first, which can be seen in both basins, is characterized by tensional forces that gradually abate with time to vanish some ～ 20 my after the onset of rifting. The magnitude of tectonic force required to initiate the rifting process is significantly greater in the Valencia Trough than in the Provençal Basin. Subsequently, the dynamic development of these back-arc basins differs. In the Provençal Basin, there is a renewal of force, with extensional deformation concentrated in the central part of the rift whereas, in the Valencia Trough, the second tectonic force regime is inferred to be one that causes compression that subsequently relaxes. Such temporal patterns of tectonic force are interpreted to be related to the causative driving processes, allowing constraints to be placed on the transient interaction between the overriding and subducting plates in a back-arc setting. The models also allow inferences to be made about the rheological structure of the lithosphere. A significant variation of initial crustal thickness is inferred for the Provençal Basin but not for the Valencia Trough. In both basins, a wet rheology is required in order to initiate rifting given currently accepted bounds on tectonic force magnitudes; adoption of a dry rheology leads to insufficiently high strain rates for significant lithosphere extension in both cases.     

Geochemical and Sr–Nd–Pb isotopic investigation of Triassic granitoids and basement rocks in the northern Gyeongsang Basin, Korea: Implications for the young basement in the East Asian continental margin

Abstract We present chemical and Sr–Nd–Pb isotopic compositions of three Triassic (226–241 Ma) calc‐alkaline granitoids (the Yeongdeok granite, Yeonghae diorite and Cheongsong granodiorite) and basement rocks in the northern Gyeongsang basin, south‐eastern Korea. These plutons exhibit typical geochemical characteristics of I‐type granitoids generated in a continental magmatic arc. The Yeongdeok and Yeonghae plutons have similar initial Sr, Nd and Pb isotope ratios (⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr_initial = 0.7041 ~ 0.7050, ?_Nd(t) = 2.3 ~ 4.0, ²⁰⁶Pb/²⁰⁴Pb_feldspar = 18.22 ~ 18.34), but distinct rare earth element patterns, suggesting that the two plutons formed from partial melting of a similar source material at different depths. The Cheongsong pluton has slightly more enriched Sr–Nd–Pb isotopic compositions (⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr_initial = 0.7047 ~ 0.7065, ?_Nd(t) = 3.9 ~ 2.8, ²⁰⁶Pb/²⁰⁴Pb_feldspar = 18.24 ~ 18.37) than the other two plutons. The Nd model ages of the basement rocks (1.1 ~ 1.4 Ga) are slightly older than those of the plutons (0.6 ~ 1.0 Ga). The initial Sr and Nd isotopic ratios of the plutons can be modeled by the mixing between the mid‐oceanic ridge basalt‐like depleted mantle component and the crustal component represented by basement rocks, which is also supported by Pb isotope data. The Sr and Nd isotope data from granitoids and basement rocks suggest that the Gyeongsang basin, the Hida belt and the inner zone of south‐western Japan share relatively young basement histories (middle Proterozoic), compared with those (early Proterozoic to Archean) of the Gyeonggi and Yeongnam massifs and the Okcheon belt. The Nd isotope data of basement rocks suggest that the Hida belt might be better correlated with the basement of the Gyeongsang basin than the Gyeonggi massif, the Okcheon belt or the Yeongnam massif, although it may represent an older continental margin of East Asia than the Gyeongsang basin considering its slightly older Nd model ages.     

Empirical evidence for a celestial origin of the climate oscillations and its implications

We investigate whether or not the decadal and multi-decadal climate oscillations have an astronomical origin. Several global surface temperature records since 1850 and records deduced from the orbits of the planets present very similar power spectra. Eleven frequencies with period between 5 and 100 years closely correspond in the two records. Among them, large climate oscillations with peak-to-trough amplitude of about 0.1 and 0.25°C, and periods of about 20 and 60 years, respectively, are synchronized to the orbital periods of Jupiter and Saturn. Schwabe and Hale solar cycles are also visible in the temperature records. A 9.1-year cycle is synchronized to the Moon's orbital cycles. A phenomenological model based on these astronomical cycles can be used to well reconstruct the temperature oscillations since 1850 and to make partial forecasts for the 21st century. It is found that at least 60% of the global warming observed since 1970 has been induced by the combined effect of the above natural climate oscillations. The partial forecast indicates that climate may stabilize or cool until 2030–2040. Possible physical mechanisms are qualitatively discussed with an emphasis on the phenomenon of collective synchronization of coupled oscillators.     

大兴安岭西侧盆地群推覆构造的地震学证据

推覆构造是一种和油气有关的重要构造形式,主要产出于造山带前陆,是挤压或压缩作用的结果,对油气的生成、储集、运移、圈闭和保存条件都有着重要的影响.研究区从漠河盆地、海拉尔盆地到二连盆地内的中生代推覆构造,组构了大兴安岭西盆地群推覆构造.本文通过对三个盆地五种推覆构造的地震学研究,将其推覆方向归结为两类：第一类由北西向南东推覆,在三个盆地中表现明显;第二类由南东向北西推覆,在海拉尔盆地和二连盆地内有显示.认为第一类推覆作用来源于蒙古-鄂霍茨克洋自西向东的闭合;第二类推覆作用来源于太平洋板块俯冲的远程应力作用.

     

Further evidence in support of the mixing model for howardite origin

Four diogenites, four howardites and seven eucrites have been analysed for major, minor and a number of trace elements by X-ray fluorescence spectrometry. Inter-element relationships between various elements in howardites, particularly refractory elements, are interpreted in the light of the recently proposed mixing model, whereby howardites are considered to be mixtures of eucritic and diogenitic material. Differences in composition observed between two samples of Frankfort analysed in this work lend strong support to this hypothesis. The nature of the proposed end-member composition in howardites is shown to be variable.     

Spathian to Aegean (upper Lower Triassic to lower Middle Triassic) carbon isotope stratigraphy constrained by the conodont biostratigraphy of carbonates on top of a mid-oceanic seamount formed in the Panthalassic Ocean

The Taho Formation in western Shikoku Island, Japan, consists of Triassic carbonates that formed on a seamount in the Panthalassic Ocean. In order to investigate the stratigraphy and paleoceanography of this carbonate succession, we analyzed the biostratigraphy and chemostratigraphy of a 17.6 m-thick section of the upper Taho Formation at the stratotype area in Tahokamigumi, Seiyo City. This section comprises bioclastic limestone containing Triassic bivalves, ammonoids, and conodonts. We recognized six conodont zones (in ascending order): the Novispathodus pingdingshanensis, Novispathodus brevissimus, Triassospathodus symmetricus, Triassospathodus homeri, Chiosella timorensis, and Magnigondolella cf. alexanderi zones. Thus, the studied carbonate succession is latest Smithian to Aegean in age. A δ¹³C profile of this section shows elevated values during the lowest Spathian followed by a gradual negative excursion, a subsequent positive excursion near the Spathian–Aegean boundary, and relatively constant values during the Aegean. The characteristic series of negative and positive excursions correlates with other δ¹³C records for this period, including the peak of the upper Smithian–lowest Spathian positive excursion (P3), lower to middle Spathian negative excursion (N4), and middle Spathian–lowest Aegean positive excursion (P4). This represents a new high-resolution Spathian–Aegean δ¹³C record of the Panthalassic Ocean, for which ages are constrained by conodont biostratigraphy. The Taho δ¹³C profile exhibits a consistent positive offset of ~2 ‰ as compared with those from other regions (i.e., mostly in the Tethyan Ocean). This can be explained by preferential removal of ¹²C from seawater during photosynthesis and calcification by marine organisms over the platform, and/or the relatively high δ¹³C values of dissolved inorganic carbon in the Panthalassic Ocean due to less influence of ¹²C-enriched terrestrial waters and high marine organic production/burial as compared with the more restricted Tethyan Ocean.     

Geochemical survey of Levante Bay,Vulcano Island (Italy), a natural laboratory for the study of ocean acidification

Shallow submarine gas vents in Levante Bay, Vulcano Island (Italy), emit around 3.6t CO₂ per day providing a natural laboratory for the study of biogeochemical processes related to seabed CO₂ leaks and ocean acidification. The main physico-chemical parameters (T, pH and Eh) were measured at more than 70 stations with 40 seawater samples were collected for chemical analyses. The main gas vent area had high concentrations of dissolved hydrothermal gases, low pH and negative redox values all of which returned to normal seawater values at distances of about 400 m from the main vents. Much of the bay around the vents is corrosive to calcium carbonate; the north shore has a gradient in seawater carbonate chemistry that is well suited to studies of the effects of long-term increases in CO₂ levels. This shoreline lacks toxic compounds (such as H₂S) and has a gradient in carbonate saturation states.     

鄂尔多斯盆地中-新生代岩石圈厚度演化——来自地热学的证据

盆地热历史可以为揭示深部动力学过程提供时间和空间上的连续信息. 本文利用镜质体反射率古温标模拟了鄂尔多斯盆地从东到西7口典型井的热历史, 并在此基础上计算了盆地中生代晚期、古近纪初期以及现今的"热"岩石圈厚度. 结果显示, 鄂尔多斯盆地在早白垩世末期经历了一次热流高峰, 热流值为73~78 mW/m2, 此后的热流值一直降低至今,现今的平均值61.8 mW/m2; 早白垩世末期盆地"热"岩石圈厚度也经历了一次减薄高峰, 平均"热"岩石圈厚度为65 km左右, 此后逐渐增厚至现今的125 km左右. 鄂尔多斯盆地现今"热"岩石圈厚度中等, 早古生代200 km的厚岩石圈已不存在; 早白垩世末期是其地质发展历史的一个重大变革期, 此时"热"岩石圈厚度发生减薄, 深部构造活动强烈导致浅部盆地抬升剥蚀剧烈, 周缘岩浆活动强烈, 多种能源矿产形成, 这与华北克拉通东部构造转折的时间以及华北克拉通破坏的高峰时限具有一致性.     

Analysis of seasonal snowmelt contribution using a distributed energy balance model for a river basin in the Altai Mountains of northwestern China

Snowmelt water is a vital freshwater resource in the Altai Mountains of northwestern China. Yet its seasonal hydrological cycle characteristics could change under a warming climate and more rapid spring snowmelt. Here, we simulated snowmelt runoff dynamics in the Kayiertesi River catchment, from 2000 to 2016, by using an improved hydrological distribution model that relied on high-resolution meteorological data acquired from the National Centers for Environmental Prediction (Fnl-NCEP) that were downscaled using the Weather Research Forecasting model. Its predictions were compared to observed runoff data, which confirmed the simulations' reliability. Our results show the model performed well, in general, given its daily validation Nash–Sutcliffe efficiency (NSE) of 0.62 (from 2013 to 2015) and a monthly NSE score of 0.68 (from 2000 to 2010) for the studied river basin of the Altai Mountains. In this river basin catchment, snowfall accounted for 64.1% of its precipitation and snow evaporation for 49.8% of its total evaporation, while snowmelt runoff constituted 29.3% of the annual runoff volume. Snowmelt's contribution to runoff in the Altai Mountains can extend into non-snow days because of the snowmelt water retained in soils. From 2000 to 2016, the snow-to-rain ratio decreased rapidly, however, the snowmelt contribution remained relatively stable in the study region. Our findings provide a sound basis for making snowmelt runoff predictions, which could be used prevent snowmelt-induced flooding, as well as a generalizable approach applicable to other remote, high-elevation locations where high-density, long-term observational data are currently lacking. How snowmelt contributes to water dynamics and resources in cold regions is garnering greater attention. Our proposed model is thus timely perhaps, enabling more comprehensive assessments of snowmelt contributions to hydrological processes in those alpine regions characterized by seasonal snow cover.     

Geochemical evidence for the characteristic of the 1908 Tunguska explosion body in Siberia, Russia

Twenty-two peat samples collected at different depths of a core including the layer affected by the 1908 explosion in Tunguska area of Central Siberia, Russia, and three basalt samples collected near the site, are analyzed by ICP-MS. The concentrations of Pd, Ni, Co, ΣREE, Ti and Sr in the event layers are 4–35 times higher than the background values in the normal layers. The variation of Pd is closely related to Ni, Co and ΣREE in the event layers, but not to these elements in the normal layers. It indicates that these excess elements came from the same source, i.e. the Tunguska explosion body. In addition, the patterns of Cl-chondrite-normalized REE in the event layers ((La/Yb)_N ≈2–3) are much flatter than those in the normal layers ((La/Yb)_N ≈7–143), and differ from those in the three basalt samples. The concentrations of REE in the three basalt samples are tens times higher than those in the event layers. It may be inferred that these excess elements could not be produced by the contamination of the terrestrial material, but probably by the Tunguska explosion body. Additionally, the ratios of Ti/Ni and Sr/Co in the event layers are close to those in comet. It implies that the solid part of the explosion body was compositionally similar to carbonaceous chondrites (Cl) and more probably a small comet. In terms of the Pd excess fluxes in the explosion area, it can be estimated that the celestial body that exploded over Tunguska in 1908 weighed more than 10⁷ tons, corresponding to a radius of > 126 m.     

Three-dimensional structure of mesoscale eddies in the western tropical Pacific as revealed by a high-resolution ocean simulation

The three-dimensional structure of mesoscale eddies in the western tropical Pacific(6°S–20°N, 120°E–150°E)is investigated using a high-resolution ocean model simulation. Eddy detection and eddy tracking algorithms are applied to simulated horizontal velocity vectors, and the anticyclonic and cyclonic eddies identified are composited to obtain their three-dimensional structures. The mean lifetime of all long-lived eddies is about 52 days, and their mean diameter is 147 km. Two typical characteristics of mesoscale eddies are revealed and possible dynamic explanations are analyzed. One typical characteristic is that surface eddies are generally separated from subthermocline eddies along the bifurcation latitude(~13°N) of the North Equatorial Current in the western tropical Pacific, which may be associated with different eddy energy sources and vertical eddy energy fluxes in subtropical and tropical gyres. Surface eddies have maximum swirl velocities of 8–9 cm s~(-1) and can extend to about 1500 m depth. Subthermocline eddies occur below 200 m, with their cores at about 400–600 m depth, and their maximum swirl velocities can reach 10 cm s~(-1). The other typical characteristic is that the meridional velocity component of the eddy is much larger than the zonal component. This characteristic might be due to more zonal eddy pairs(two eddies at the same latitude),which is also supported by the zonal wavelength(about 200 km) in the high-frequency meridional velocity component of the horizontal velocity.