A reindeer herder's perspective on caribou, weather and socio-economic change on the Seward Peninsula, Alaska

Non-climate variables shape vulnerability and adaptive capacity to climate change. Here, we describe how recent environmental and socio-economic developments have transformed reindeer herding and perceptions of weather on the Seward Peninsula, Alaska. The reindeer industry has shrunk considerably since the early 1990s, when the winter range of the Western Arctic Caribou Herd expanded, and over 17 000 reindeer mixed with migrating caribou and left the region. Socio-economic and environmental repercussions make the continuation of herding tenuous, and erode the ability of herders to cope with weather variability, among other perturbations. We present a case study of one herder's annual cycle, and juxtapose physical drivers of herding activities, including weather-station and herder observations of local weather variability, with socio-economic factors. There is an increased urgency to access and monitor reindeer with caribou present, but herding plans are constrained by lower economic returns and the need to spend more time in non-herding jobs. Although weather is a greater concern now for immediate herd access, standard weather data are largely irrelevant to the mechanics of herding, whereas variables pertaining to the timing of biotic events (e.g., synchrony of spring break-up and calving) and visibility are attributed to lost herding opportunities. Short-term responses to weather conditions stem from more long-term vulnerability associated with caribou presence, reduced herd size, difficulties affording snowmobile maintenance or crew assistance, and dwindling market opportunities. We emphasize the environmental and socio-economic interactions that affect vulnerability and adaptive capacity for modern herding.     

Managing human disturbance of wildlife in coastal areas

Human disturbance of wildlife is an under‐recognised and under‐regulated problem. This article discusses traditional approaches to conservation management in protecting wildlife from disturbance in the context of the New Zealand coastal environment and threatened birds. Limitations and challenges are identified and alternative actions proposed. The key problems are deficiencies in regulation of species disturbance, lack of definition of thresholds of harm that contemplate rarity and conservation status, insufficient comprehensive wildlife conservation planning and the need for innovative planning methods that address species mobility, permeable boundaries and environmental dynamism. Regulatory controls including enforcing setbacks/approach distances through either extended species protection or 'mobile habitat' protection are recommended.     

Response of reindeer and caribou to human activities

Petroleum and mineral exploration and extraction, hydroelectric development, atmospheric transport of contaminants, timber harvesting and tourism are increasing worldwide, especially in the Arctic. This development may adversely affect populations of reindeer/caribou ( Rangifer tarandus ) which are the basis of subsistence economies for northern indigenous peoples. Our purpose is to present a survey of the literature that has investigated the response of reindeer/caribou to human activities. Individuals and groups of reindeer/caribou: 1) move away from point sources of disturbance; 2) increase activity and energy expenditure near disturbance; 3) delay crossing or fail to cross linear structures; 4) shift away from areas of extensive and intensive development; and 5) are killed by collisions with vehicles and by hunting along roads. Cows and calves during the calving season are the most easily disturbed group. Bulls in general and all reindeer/caribou during insect harassment are least likely to avoid development areas. Estimation of the proportion of a population that is exposed to disturbance and the implications of this exposure to annual energy budgets, survival and productivity of reindeer/caribou has received little attention. Future advances in understanding the implications of human disturbance to reindeer/caribou will require cumulative effects assessment at annual, population and regional scales. Although some level of cumulative effect is likely, clear separation of cumulative effects of development from natural variation in caribou habitat use and demography will be difficult.     

Regulation of annual weight cycles in reindeer and other cervids

Seasonal changes in weight, food intake and metabolic rate are characteristic of reindeer and other northern ungulates. This article reviews relationships between endocrine and weight cycles in reindeer and other cervids, and the effect of manipulations with endocrine cycles upon the weight cycle. It appears that the secretions of most endocrine glands change throughout the year, either as a result of nutritional changes or of an inherent seasonal rhythm. It is suggested that the weight and metabolic cycles are secondary to an appetite cycle that is hormonally regulated. The hormonal control may include several hormones: sex steroids, thyroid hormones, and prolactin.     

Status, directions and priorities of reindeer husbandry research in Sweden

Emerging out of small-scale reindeer farming, large-scale reindeer husbandry in Sweden and Norway was developed to counteract resource scarcity caused by depleted wild reindeer numbers and human population growth above what the former subsistence economy could sustain. Current numbers of reindeer are likely lower and fluctuate less than before wild reindeer were depleted and reindeer husbandry started on a large scale. Productivity is about 7-8 kg of meat per head in winter stock. Current problems arise from a multitude of circumstances, some of them related to the problems of practising a subsistence type of living in close connection with a modern industrialized society. Problems include: low production, typical for harsh conditions and use of an unimproved animal stock; the inability to support a modern standard of living solely from reindeer; the collective access to grazing grounds which makes internal management difficult; unclear legal rights resulting in conflicting interests with other land users and formal owners; and the relatively low number of people directly involved in reindeer husbandry. Possible long-term consequences are marginalization and the loss of land use rights, with negative consequences for the Saami as an indigenous people. Reindeer husbandry research addresses these problems by integrating human-ecological and socio-economic aspects with traditional natural science orientated research on reindeer husbandry problems. This research is funded by a multitude of sources. Independently of this, research is conducted on Saami life and culture in relation to reindeer husbandry at various universities, especially within social sciences and arts.     

Komi reindeer herding: the effects of socialist and post-socialist change on mobility and land use

This paper contributes to the discussion concerning the way in which Soviet state policies have influenced the lives, social organization, economy and culture of a group of indigenous Komi reindeer herders of northern Russia: its main focus is to explain how these policies have changed the herders' patterns of migration and land use. Extensive anthropological fieldwork—to determine current and past herding practices—was carried out and archives were thoroughly investigated to document land use changes in relation to state reindeer herding policies. It was found that compared with those of several decades ago, the migration routes are now much shorter, as the herders have abandoned large areas of winter pastures located in the southernmost part of their herding territory. This "abandonment" phenomenon is endemic amongst reindeer herders generally, throughout the Komi Republic. Whereas the reasons for the abandonment of winter pastures are diverse, they can be attributed mostly to the state sedentarization policy, which has modified the family structures of herders, and the continuing decreases in state subsidies that have changed the balance between state and private ownership of reindeer. Both these factors have greatly contributed to the herders' dependence on visiting towns, where they now own flats, and on selling reindeer products, upon which they are increasingly reliant for financial security.     

High voltage transmission lines and their effect on reindeer: a research programme in progress

We review literature on high voltage transmission lines and their effect on wild reindeer ( Rangifer tarandus ) migration patterns and area use. We conclude that reliable knowledge is lacking on the effects of transmission lines on reindeer ecology. This condition relates to the lack of long-term monitoring of reindeer migration patterns in relation to existing lines. It is also related to the fact that nothing is known about hearing in reindeer (or any other deer species in Norway) in relation to transmission line noise, which is considered an obstacle for migrating reindeer.
We then outline a research programme that includes a laboratory study to determine the audiogram in reindeer and two field studies to examine the proximate effects of transmission lines - independently as well as combined with ambient environmental variables - on reindeer behaviour. The audiogram in two yearling male reindeer has been determined; this part of the study will be completed this year with the determination of a corresponding audiogram in two female yearlings. The behaviour study of domestic reindeer under high voltage transmission lines was completed in September 1999. The behaviour study of wild reindeer in the area crossed by a 420 kV power line will continue this year and its completion is anticipated in 2001.     

山东半岛城市群发展模式仿真研究

改革开放以来,山东半岛各城市迅速发展,极大推动了全省国民经济的发展,但与此同时,经济、环境与社会效益之间的矛盾也日趋激化。在分析该区主要人地关系问题的基础上,探讨生态环境与经济发展之间的相互关系,利用系统动力学模型进行多方案动态仿真模拟,进而利用协调发展度模型对各方案环境与经济协调发展程度进行定量评判,得出相对较优的发展方案,为该区协调发展提供战略决策依据。     

渤海海峡跨海通道建设对山东半岛、辽东半岛城市经济联系的影响研究

渤海海峡跨海通道建设将极大地改善环渤海地区的交通格局,势必会对山东半岛、辽东半岛城市间的经济联系产生深远的影响。通过对区域经济联系引力模型进行修正,选取山东半岛城市群8个城市和辽中南城市群10个城市的地区生产总值、市区非农人口、城市间的时间距离以及克鲁格曼指数等指标,测度了渤海海峡跨海通道建设对两半岛城市间经济联系的影响。结论表明,渤海海峡跨海通道建设将大幅提升两半岛城市经济联系强度,明显改变两半岛城市经济联系空间格局,其潜在的无形中的影响是巨大的。所测算的经济联系量值用于两半岛城市间经济联系的影响研究具有一定的参考价值。     

Long-term air temperature variability on the Crimean Peninsula

A comparison is made of the calculated values of solar radiation incident on the upper atmospheric boundary with the measured values of surface temperature on the territory of the Crimean Peninsula. It is shown that the long-term temperature regime on the territory of the Crimean Peninsula is characterized by a stability. It is determined that the stability of the long-term regime of mean annual surface air temperatures is associated with the characteristics of the latitudinal distribution of solar radiation incident on the upper atmospheric boundary. The incident solar radiation increases in the regions of heat sources and decreases in the regions of heat sink. Stability of long-term mean annual values of surface air temperature is associated with the location of the Crimea on the boundary of the regions of heat sources and sinks. The study revealed the chronological structure of long-term changes in surface air temperature. The anomaly in the long-term surface air temperature variability is characterized by short-duration variations. An analysis is made of the chronological structure of interannual variability in surface air temperature on the territory of the peninsula. The dominant interannual and 2–3-year periodicities in the temperature regime variations are correlated with variations in incident solar radiation. In 62.7% of cases, the sign of interannual variability in surface air temperature corresponds to the sign of interannual variability in incident solar radiation. Thus it is shown that a small tendency in the long-term surface air temperature variability on the territory of the Crimean Peninsula, and the characteristics of its variations are determined largely by the specific character of the input and distribution of solar radiation incident on the upper atmospheric boundary.     

'Totally Wild'? Colonising discourses,indigenous knowledges and managing wildlife

This paper offers a critique of politically dominant Eurocentric notions of culture and nature in Australia. In particular, it interrogates Eurocentric concepts of animals, wildlife and management, and seeks to unsettle these concepts by considering some of the diverse ways in which indigenous people in Australia know country, animals and wilderness. Using the metaphor of Eurocentric ontology in a hall of mirrors, the paper argues that Eurocentric claims of universalism for naturalised discourses that assume the adequacy of a nature-culture binary form a very fragile circular argument. Self-justifying the imposition and assertion of Eurocentric concepts and practices is a mechanistic reflection of the particular terms of reference set by Eurocentric knowledges and a denial of multiple ways of knowing. The dangers this presents are illustrated by examining how concepts and practices underlying wildlife management have self-justified (continuing) colonising processes in Australia. Finally, the paper attempts to open up spaces that address these dangers. Situated engagement is introduced as an approach which could shatter the hall of mirrors--by clearly embodying and emplacing all thought and action, universalised boundaries can be recognised and breached and new possibilities imagined and realised.     

华南与中南半岛三角洲发育特征之比较

韩江、珠江、红河、湄公河、湄南河三角洲同处东亚季风热带。河流丰水少沙,径流强劲, 洪枯流量比值大,洪泛平原和湿地发育,有珊瑚礁和红树林堆积,平原推进速率较大,出海口门多,这些都是热带三角洲的特色。各三角洲的构造基础都是断陷盆地,由于断陷的幅度和时代不相同,故而第四系的厚度和年龄差异很大。受全球海平面变化的影响,末次冰期以来,各三角洲经历了相似的沉积过程,发育3期三角洲。所处位置(湾内或湾外)、滨外陆架坡度、海洋动力等条件,使各三角洲的地貌类型、地面高程、平原推进速率、水下三角洲、水动力类型等有较大的差异。     

Effects of weather and snow conditions on reproduction and survival of semi-domesticated reindeer (R. t. tarandus)

In this work we investigated the effects of local weather and snow conditions on the reproduction and survival of semi-domesticated reindeer ( Rangifer t. tarandus ) from 1962 to 1987 in four separate study areas in northern Finland. Reindeer density had no negative effect on calf percentage in slaughter (October-January) in any area. The higher the number of very warm days or mean temperatures in summer, the lower was the calf percentage in all forested areas (Sodankylä, Muonio and Ivalo). In the Muonio area, calf percentage was also reduced by winters with abundant snow accumulation. In the open, mountainous Kevo area, calf percentage was reduced with a high number of warm days (mean T>0°C) during the previous December. However, if the previous May was warm in that area, it had an opposite effect. High reindeer densities seemed to increase mortality only in the Sodankylä area. Abundant snow accumulation during winter reduced the survival index of reindeer both in the Sodankylä and Ivalo areas. In the Muonio area, mortality of reindeer was increased with a high number of warm days in December. In the Kevo area, reindeer density or any climatic parameters could not explain yearly differences in mortality. This study indicated that permanent changes in climatic conditions could have different impacts in woodland as opposed to open, mountainous regions. In general, if global climatic change means weather instability in early winter and more snow, it also brings more difficulties for reindeer. However, if climate change means that snow melts earlier in the spring, some conditions could become more favourable for reindeer.     

基于地貌动力学的雷州半岛海滩状态分类研究

海滩地貌动力学为理解海滩形态和海岸动力环境提供了理论框架,在海滩的保护与开发中有重要的指导意义。基于地质背景、海滩地貌形态、海滩沉积物和海洋动力要素选取7个可以量化的海滩特征指标,采用聚类分析对雷州半岛23个海滩进行分类和地貌动力特征识别,针对海滩状态分类模型Ω-RTR在雷州半岛复杂多变海岸线环境下的适用性进行了分析,结果表明：① 雷州半岛海滩可以分为六类：反射组、低潮阶地/反射组（有裂流）、沙坝-槽谷/中间状态组、沙坝消散组、超消散组和低潮阶地/反射组（无裂流）;② 波浪、潮汐、沉积物特征以及海岸地质构造背景等对雷州半岛海滩状态均有不同程度的影响,在不同岸段各要素的影响各异。地质背景是海滩状态分类不可忽视的因素。③ 由于Ω-RTR模型在判别海滩状态时更侧重于动力和沉积因素,分类结果与聚类分析结果稍有差异,但总体上可以有效区分海滩状态类型,是理解海滩动力地貌系统有效手段。     

Influence of land use on the abundance of wildlife and livestock in the Kalahari,Botswana

Human land use such as pastoralism may be a key determinant of wildlife populations. We studied the influence of land use on wildlife and livestock in south-western Kalahari, Botswana, during the wet and dry seasons. We included two types of livestock areas and two types of wildlife protection areas. Wild and domestic mammals >0.2 kg were sampled by distance technique. Small mammals <0.2 kg were trapped and a vegetation survey was performed. Livestock and some medium-sized wildlife species were most abundant in livestock areas, while large-sized wildlife species were mainly restricted to wildlife areas. Most red-listed species were confined to the national park. The influence of land use on abundances changed moderately between seasons. However, cattle moved into wildlife areas during the wet season. Differences in species richness and diversity were most pronounced during the dry season. The trapping frequency of small mammals was highest in the national park. Differences in vegetation structure included sparser field layer and higher cover of an invasive shrub in livestock areas. Our study shows the importance of protected areas for many wildlife species in the Kalahari. It also shows the value of a multi-species approach for investigating the effects of land use on wildlife communities.     

山东半岛地热资源与开发

从地热区域分布,地热水物理和地热水化学诸方面论述了山东半岛的地热地质特征;结合国内外地热开发利用途径及本地区地热开发利用现状指出了地热开发利用中存在的主要矛盾和问题,提出了适合本地区进一步开发利用地热资源的几点建议和设想。     

Remote sensing of the impact of reindeer grazing on vegetation in northern Fennoscandia using SPOT XS data

Digital image analysis and SPOT XS satellite data recorded on 1 August 1991 were used to monitor vegetation in the border region between Enontekio municipality, Finland, and Kautokeino municipality, Norway. A supervised classification on the red wave length channel was undertaken using training areas for maximum likelihood classifier to produce seven spectral land cover classes. The classification revealed great differences in vegetation between Finland and Norway. The largest difference was the lack of Cladinalichens on the Finnish side of the border. The area on the Finnish side is used for grazing all year round, while the area on the Norwegian side is a winter range only. According to official data for the local reindeer population, the average annual grazing pressure (head/area/time) is higher on the Norwegian side of the reindeer fence. The Finnish grazing practice is believed to have a detrimental impact on the vegetation, and has lead to pasture land degradation.