Evolving planning systems in Madrid,Rome, and Athens

Although possessing ancient and distinguished histories, the recent urbanization and planning approaches of Madrid, Rome and Athens are relatively unknown to English-speaking planners and urban geographers. This paper reviews the development of each city from the mid-19th century to the present. Special attention is given to the planning instruments developed in each city to guide growth. Each city experienced rapid growth over the past century because of its capital city functions. As a result of strong growth pressures, city planning policies were frequently subverted by private sector interests. Only in the latter part of the 20th century have planning measures become effective in controlling and directing urban growth.     

小冰期气候的研究

本文总结分析了近年来国内外对小冰期气候的研究，对亚洲、欧洲、北美、南美、非洲、北极地区及南极洲的各种重建气温序列进行了整理。所有序列均取１０００－１９８９年每５０年的平均值(最后一个仅有４０年)，并统一对近千年平均求距平。发现１７世纪及１９世纪的冷期有很大普遍性。平均比２０世纪后半低１．０℃左右。火山活动与太阳活动(¹⁴Ｃ)指数及平均气温序列的相关系数分别为－０．４９及－０．７３，说明这两个因素可能是小冰期形成的原因。     

Urban planning in Rome from 1870 to the first world war

City plans are political documents and changes in the content of plans often reflect changes in the urban political environment. At the time of its annexation into a newly unified Italy in 1870, divergent views abouth the future development of Rome began to emerge. The politically dominant views were expressed in city development olans adopted in 1873 and 1883. These plans stressed eastward expansion and the opening up of the pre-1870 portion of the city with new wider streets. The plans, however, were circumvented by building speculators who developed in areas beyond their boundaries. By the turn of the 20th century a reaction to speculative growth emerged resulting in the adoption of the 1909 plan which stressed core area preservation and peripheral open space protection.     

19世纪以来全球蛇绿岩研究综述

蛇绿岩普遍被发现在碰撞型和增生型两种造山带缝合线上,因此经常被用来确定板块边界。自从欧洲地质学家在19世纪早期提出蛇绿岩的概念以来,蛇绿岩的研究经历了几个发展阶段。早期研究认为蛇绿岩是侵入地槽的一套侵入岩;板块构造理论兴起后,蛇绿岩被认为是产生于大洋中脊的洋壳;在1972年的Penrose会议上,科学家们将蛇绿岩定义为一套从基性岩到超基性岩的,可以区分的复式岩体。此后,蛇绿岩的起源(构造背景),侵位机制,特征等研究都取得了很多进展。进入21世纪,出现了一些较好的蛇绿岩形成模式和划分方法。     

Radiocarbon chronology of Holocene glacial and climatic events in southeastern Altai (Central Asia)

The geomorphological studies and radiocarbon dating of moraine complexes and the tree line within the North Chuya Ridge, along with active slope processes, soil formation, and peat formation in southeastern Gorny Altai, constrain the age of the main glacial and climatic events in this area at 7 ka to the first half of the 19th century. It is for the first time in the history of Altai studies that 57 absolute dates were obtained for glaciation in a vast but climatically and neotectonically homogeneous area. The new data refute the conventional idea that the Holocene glaciation in this mountain land comprised eight stages of the gradual retreat of the Late Würm (Sartan) glaciation. Also, they evidence that glaciation in the upper parts of the troughs retreated almost completely no later than 7 ka and valley glaciers in southeastern Altai were activated many times in the second half of the Holocene. Data are given on the morphology and age of three moraine generations reflected in the topography. A combination of temperature minima and humidity maxima led to a catastrophically rapid and the largest (up to 5–6 km) ice advance at the Akkem Stage (4.9–4.2 ka). In addition to the radiocarbon data, the time limits of the Historical stage (2.3–1.7 ka) were defined more precisely using dendrochronological and archaeological data from Scythian burials of Pazyryk culture in SE Altai. The moraines closest to the present-day glaciers formed at the Aktru Stage (late 13th–middle 19th century). During warm interglacials, the glaciers waned considerably or retreated completely and the zone of recent glaciation was reforested. As a result of progressive aridization in the Holocene, the glaciers in southeastern Altai waned at each successive stage, and their mass balance was not positive during the greatest temperature minimum of the last millennium (middle 19th century).     

Mitigation of Flooding and Cyclone Hazard in Orissa, India

Storm surges generated by the strong tangential wind stressesand normal atmospheric pressure gradients at the sea surface due to tropical cyclones (TC'S)have been studied with the goal of detecting any significant and systematic changes due to climatechange. Cyclone and storm surge data for the 19th and 20th centuries for the Bay of Bengalcoast of the state of Orissa in India are available to varying degrees of quality and detail,the data being more scientific since the advent of the India Meteorological Department in 1875.Based on more precise data for the period 1971 to 2000, statistical projections have been madeon the probable intensities of tropical cyclones for various return periods. The super cyclone ofOctober 29, 1999 (SC1999) appears to have a return period of about 50 years. The cyclones of1831, 1885 and possibly the one in 1895 could have been super cyclones. During the 19th century,there were 72 flooding events associated with cyclones, whereas in the 20th century therewere only 56 events. There was no observational evidence to suggest that there was an increaseeither in the frequency or intensity of cyclones or storm surges on the coast of Orissa. However,the impact of cyclones and surges is on the increase due to increase of population and coastalinfrastructure.     

Geomorphological evolution of the River Loukkos estuary around the Phoenician city of Lixus on the Atlantic Littoral of Morocco

The ancient city of Lixus, today situated on a hill on the right bank of the River Loukkos, 4km from the coast, was founded on the shore of a brackish lagoon that was sheltered from Atlantic storms. This geographical context provided the city with one of the best Phoenician harbors and abundant fishing resources, and allowed access to the Gharb cattle farming resources and cereal production systems. In this study, the historical evolution of the Loukkos estuarine environment is reconstructed through geomorphological and sedimentological analyses, combined with cartographic, archaeological, and geographical data. The outcomes reveal the progressive infilling of the estuarine lagoon of Lixus and its transformation into the current estuary and floodplain. The recent history of this estuary records four successive stages: (1) an initial stage associated with the maximum Holocene marine transgression (5500 to 5320 cal. yr B.P.) that reached the interior of the estuary; (2) a sheltered brackish tidal lagoon stage in Phoenician and Roman times; (3) a period of progressive infilling of the estuarine lagoon, from late Roman times to the Middle Ages (11th to15th centuries); (4) a period of rapid expansion of intertidal marshes (17th to 19th centuries) that saw the formation of the modern estuarine plain and meandering channel system (20th century). © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Environmental deterioration and human agency in ancient Macedonia: A case study

Stobi, a city inhabited from at least the 4th century B.C. to the late 6th century A.D., is at the confluence of the Vardar and Crna Rivers, now in the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia. Archaeological and geologic evidence was used in the 1970s by R. L. Folk to develop a scenario of local environmental degradation, resulting from a postulated widespread climate change (4th–8th centuries A.D.), as a major cause of the decline and eventual abandonment of Stobi. The data for increasingly xeric conditions, catastrophic floods, and mudslides along the Crna River are reviewed and other paleoenvironmental evidence is considered. Subsequent archaeological investigations and a refined chronology reveal repeated episodes of rebuilding along the Crna between periods of flooding. After that portion of the city was abandoned in the mid‐5th century, Stobi achieved new prosperity as reflected in the construction of large‐scale ecclesiastical architecture and houses outside the south city wall. Human agency and periodic extreme weather are proposed as causes of environmental degradation at Stobi. The city's demise is attributed mainly to hostile invasions, plague, earthquake, and the collapse of imperial administrative and economic networks. © 2007 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

近500年来安徽杭埠河流域旱涝灾害发生规律及其成因分析

通过对杭埠河流域近500年的旱涝灾害、人口变化等史志资料的搜集整理，分别统计出旱灾和涝灾在不同冷暖气候期和人口变化阶段的发生频率。结果显示本区气候总体冷期易旱、暖期易涝，显示季风气候区的特征。但19世纪中后期表现为冷湿特点，反映了该时期全球气候转冷和东亚夏季风的减弱。另外20世纪以来随着人口的快速增加，旱涝灾害发生频率也在显著提高，反映出急剧增强的人类活动导致巢湖调蓄能力逐渐减弱。     

2000年来华南沿海气候与环境变化

通过华南沿海两个钻孔剖面的孢粉分析，并用14种热带、南亚热带木本植物花粉含量之和与5种中、北亚热带和暖温带木本植物花粉含量之和的比值作为冷热变化的温度半定量曲线；利用2000年来古籍、地方志记载的典型热带动、植物分布、兴衰的变化作冷暖变化事件；以华南沿海罕见的降雪记载，特别是对15世纪以来的降雪现象分纬度统计其出现频率，探讨华南的小冰期。据此分析华南沿海2000年来的气候和环境变化。     

全球构造研究的简要回顾

全球构造研究可分为：（１）１９世纪后期“固定论”占统治地位阶段；（２）２０世纪６０年代前“活动论”曲折发展阶段；（３）６０年代以来板块学说占统治地位阶段。当代全球构造研究以地球深部构造与物质研究为关键。日本学者提出了“幔柱构造”和新的全球构造体系，其它学者提出了不同形式的“膨胀论”和“脉动论”。全球构造研究应注意思想创新，冲破均变论思想的局限性。建议以突变观点和“阶段论”为依据，使观察、推理和实验三者适当配合，发挥优势，逐步建立自己的地球动力学及其演化模型。     

Exhibiting the New Mussolinian City: Memories of empire in the World Exhibition of Rome (EUR)

The aim of this paper is to show how fascist imperialist discourses were articulated in a new urban space, just on the outskirts of Rome, and how they affected its design, use and representation. This new city, which should have been the spatial expression of the regime's political, cultural and economical achievements, since its beginning was conceived almost as a mirror image of classical Rome. As her fascist alter-ego, it was imagined as the modern realisation of the ancient dream of reconnecting Rome to the Mediterranean, of bringing Rome to the sea and the sea to Rome, as Mussolini used to say. This was a city that had to represent a strong political desire and ended up as an image of mere representation, a city that was founded to contain a world exhibition and became in itself merely an exhibit. Here I am interested not only in the story the EUR (Esposizione Universale di Roma) buildings tell, but also in what they do, according to a performative view of cultural production. In other words, they are not simply new monuments to be added to Fascism's already powerful iconography, but an integral part of those processes of incorporation and rule at work in the construction of Italy's national/imperial identity.     

Interaction of a normal shock wave with a compressible turbulent flow

A speckle photographic method, which is sensitive to changes of gradients in fluid density, is applied for analyzing a compressible turbulent air flow with density fluctuations. Spatial correlation coefficients, turbulent length scales, and energy spectra are determined under the assumption of homogeneous isotropic turbulence. The experiments are performed in a shock tube where the flow is passed through a turbulence grid. Measurements are taken before and after the turbulent regime interacts with the normal shock wave reflected from the tube's end wall. Amplification of the turbulence intensity by the shock interaction process is verified quantitatively and is shown to be restricted to the lower wave numbers in the spectrum.A version of this paper was presented at the 11th Symposium on Turbulence, University of Missouri-Rolla, Oct. 17–19, 1988.To Professor Dr.-Ing. Klaus Gersten on the occasion of his 60th birthday     

Population distribution and standard of living in Iceland

The Vikings and other settlers of Iceland immigrated during the 10th century not only for political reasons but also because they were seeking more spacious lands and thus a better standard of living. They found what they were searching for, and they and their descendants for some hundreds of years did live a relatively prosperous life. Eventually in the 15th century they suffered a series of setbacks. Poor living conditions were nothing unusual for the Icelanders in late medieval Europe, but this coupled with both the cool climate and the lack of timber for housing and heating, and for boat and shipbuilding made their lot an especially hard one. The 18th century was the darkest one in Icelandic history, and those acquainted with the problems doubted that the little nation could survive. But then, beginning in the 19th century and rapidly increasing in the 20th century, the urban evolution came about and brought with it a measure of progress. As a result, most Icelanders now live in towns, with over fifty percent living in Reykjavik and its environs. The effects of rural migration is one problem that persists in spite of the fact that the average income is now similar in most areas.     

Records of land use and medieval settlement history in Vuonninen,Dvina Karelia,Northwest Russia

Although the documented history of Dvina Karelia (northern Russian Karelia) does not begin until the second half of the 16th century, individual finds of prehistoric artifacts point to earlier human occupation. The present paleoecological study of the Vuonninen area is the first of its kind concerning prehistoric land use in Dvina Karelia, a large region extending from Finland to the White Sea. It is based on the pollen analysis of sediments from Lake Ylä‐Kuittijärvi near the old Karelian village of Vuonninen. In its general features, the picture of the early stages of cultivation and human activity in the village of Vuonninen is comparable to results from East Finland, the Karelian Isthmus, and the northern shores of Lake Ladoga. The first, minor indications of human influence appear in the sediments of the 4th–6th centuries A.D. in Lake Kuittijärvi. Distinct and unambiguous signs of human activity appear in the pollen record in the 12th century. This is particularly evident in the decreasing proportion of Picea, caused by the clearance of spruce forest. The beginning of cultivation is dated according to Secale pollen to the beginning of the 15th century. Intensive arable farming emerges in the early 19th century in the form of regular occurrences of Secale and Hordeum pollen. © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Potable water for a city: a historic perspective from Bruges,Belgium

Contributing to the optimisation of drinking-water supplies is a key responsibility for professional hydrogeologists. Thus, it is interesting to look back and put current-day practices in the framework of historic evolution and past achievements. The water supply of Bruges (Belgium), with an innovative supply system already established by the end of the 13th century, forms an interesting case study. The supply system consisted of an underground network of pipes feeding public and private wells. A special construction, the Water House, was built to overcome a topographical height difference. Population growth and industrial expansion during the 19th century increased the water demand and new solutions were necessary. Tap water became available from 1925 onwards and, as a stopgap measure to meet demand, deep groundwater was used. This invoked a lively debate among the city council, scientists and entrepreneurs, whereby both water quality and quantity were discussed. Although based on a lack of modern understanding of the groundwater system, some arguments, both pro or contra, look very familiar to current-day hydrogeologists.     

索伦霍芬石灰岩中的翼龙：新发现和改变采掘行为的影响

The first discoveries of pterosaur fossils were made at the end of the 18th century and during the first decades of the 19th century in Bavaria, southern Germany. They originate from limestone quarries in the vicinity of the village of Solnhofen and adjacent hamlets as well as from limestone pits close to the town of Eichst?tt.     

Rural settlements,mission settlements and rehabilitation in Transkei

During the 19th century the predominant form of rural settlement in Transkei was that of dispersed homesteads. The form of the homesteads tended to differ from tribe to tribe, while the homesteads of various tribal groups were separated from each other by uninhabitated areas, or buffer zones. During the 19th century mission settlements were introduced to Transkei, some of which developed into towns.In the 20th century, mainly as a result of government action, homesteads have been nucleated into rural settlements and villages and much of the land has been fenced. A few peri-urban and industrial villages also exist in Transkei. Over 95% of the population of Transkei in 1980 were still rural dwellers.     

New data on the late holocene seismicity of the southwestern edge of the Baikal Rift Zone

Three strong earthquakes that occurred since the end of 8th century have been identified by archeoseismic data in the southwestern part of the Tere Khol’ Depression. The dates for these events are the 9th, 12th, and first two-thirds of 19th century, and the average recurrence interval is 500 years. The relative seismic passivity of the Tere Khol’ Depression at present may be related to the relatively recent discharge of stress in seismogenerating sources.     

Reconstructing past climatic anomalies in the North Pacific and western North America from tree-ring data

Winter climatic anomalies in the North Pacific sector and western North America are statistically calibrated with tree-ring data in western North America and reconstructed back to AD 1700. The results are verified using climatic data from the last half of the 19th century, which is prior to the calibration period. Climatic conditions reconstructed for 18th and 19th century winters are then summarized and compared with the 20th century record.