A methodology for drought preparedness

Drought is a normal, recurrent feature of climate that affects virtually all countries to some degree. The number of drought-induced natural disasters has grown significantly since the 1960s, largely as a result of increasing vulnerability to extended periods of precipitation deficiency rather than because of an increase in the frequency of meteorological droughts. This increase in drought-induced natural disasters has resulted in a considerable growth of interest in drought mitigation and preparedness worldwide. The purpose of a national preparedness plan is to reduce societal vulnerability to drought through the adoption of preventive, anticipatory policies and programs. This paper describes a ten-step planning process that nations can follow to develop a drought preparedness plan. This process, originally developed in 1987, has been the basis of discussions at training seminars on drought preparedness for developing nations in Africa, Asia, and Latin America. It has also been adopted, with appropriate modifications, by state or provincial governments and by municipalities. The process is intended to be flexible so that governments can add, delete, or modify the suggested steps, as necessary.Published as Paper No. 10946, Journal Series, Nebraska Agricultural Research Division. The work reported here was conducted under Nebraska Agricultural Research Division Project 27-007. This material is based in part upon work supported by the National Science Foundation under Grant ATM-8704050.     

A potential model for fluorapatite

For the mineral fluorapatite, Ca₁₀(PO₄)₆F₂, a potential model of the polarizable ion type has been developed in order to reproduce the following physical constants: the vibrational frequencies (transverse and longitudinal), the elastic constants and the static and high frequency dielectric constants. The parameters of the model are short range force constants, ionic charges and ionic polarizabilities. The polarizable ion model was built up in three stages in order to facilitate comparison with simpler models. In the first stage a short range valence type model was set up, assuming interaction up to a distance of 3.5 Å. In the second stage this model was extended to a rigid ion model by the addition of long range Coulomb forces. In the third stage, which resulted in the polarizable ion model, the polarizabilities of the ions were also taken into account. There was good agreement between calculated and observed data. This demonstrates that even for a crystal structure as complicated as that of fluorapatite with 42 atoms per unit cell a potential model can be constructed which reproduces in a satisfactory way the above-mentioned physical constants.     

A framework for karst ecohydrology

Ecohydrology can be defined as the science of integrating hydrological and biological processes over varied spatial and temporal scales. There exists in karst a strong and direct interaction between the circulation and storage of groundwater and surface water. These fluxes in turn affect the spatial distribution of organisms in these habitats. Because of the fact that the appearance, storage and circulation of water in karstified areas is significantly different from other more homogenous and isotropic terrains, karst ecohydrology should develop original methods and approaches. At the same time, traditional approaches are also very useful. Large karst underground geomorphological patterns occur in many sizes and varieties, ranging from a few meters long or deep to very large, the deepest being deeper than 1 km and longer than hundreds of kilometres. In this article, special attention is paid to ecohydrological functions of karst underground features (caves, pits, conduits, etc.), which play a crucial dual role in (1) hydrology and hydrogeology of water circulation and storage and (2) ecology of many rare and endangered species. Differences in morphology, hydrology, hydrogeology and climate have resulted in a range of different environments, which provide the opportunity for the coexistence of different species. The role of the epikarst and vadose zones, as well as caves in ecohydrological processes, is discussed. The importance of the flood factor in karst ecology is analysed. The aim of this article is to move forward the discussion among different disciplines to promote and develop a conceptual framework for karst ecohydrology.     

A mathematical model for Biogrout

We present a mathematical model for Biogrout, which is a technique for soil reinforcement that is based on microbially induced carbonate precipitation. The model deals with the entire process, consisting of fixation of bacteria, as well as of the subsequent soil reinforcement. The paper deals with the coupling of two earlier models for bacterial placement and reinforcement, where the construction of the model is discussed, as well as numerical results. Further, we present analytical solutions for the constant flow velocity case. The model is based on the assumption that the porous medium is stiff.     

A mechanical model for conebolts

This paper presents a mechanical model for cone bolts by analysing the cone anchorage function as a wedge-style mechanical anchor. Analytical and numerical methods were employed. The failure of a cone bolt commences with a series of partial shear failure through the grout around the cone, followed by bolt slipping as the actual bearing angle of the bolt decreases to a small value. The theoretical prediction is in good agreement with experimental data in the literature. The effect of the cone’s geometric face angle was also analysed with respect to the bond strength.     

A new approach for calculating strain for particulate media

Discrete element modelling is a viable alternative to conventional continuum‐based analysis for analysing problems involving localized deformations of particulate media. However, to aid in the interpretation of the results, it is useful to express the results of discrete element analyses in terms of the continuum parameters of stress and strain. A number of homogenization methods have been proposed to calculate strain in discrete systems; however, two significant limitations of these methods remain. First, none of these methods incorporate particle rotation effects satisfactorily, although significant particle rotation occurs in shear bands in both physical tests and numerical simulations of granular materials. Additionally, observations of the particle displacement fields in shear bands in granular materials indicate that the displacements within the localizations are erratic. Consequently, existing linear, local interpolation approaches produce substantial variations in the strain values calculated in adjacent elements in the region of localization, hindering clear visualization of the strain localization as it evolves. A new method of domain discretization for calculating strain is proposed. This method is capable of capturing particle rotation and employs a non‐local meshfree interpolation procedure capable of smoothing the erratic displacements in strain localizations, which better defines their evolution. The proposed method is validated for problems involving both two and three dimensions. A number of methods are compared with the proposed method and pertinent insights are made. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A two-surface plasticity model for clay

This paper presents a two-surface plasticity constitutive model for clays based on critical-state soil mechanics. The model reproduces the mechanical response of clays under multi-axial loading conditions and predicts both drained and undrained behavior at small and large strains. The constitutive model also captures both the strain-rate-dependent behavior of clays and the drop in strength towards a residual value at very large shear strains using novel approaches. The paper also describes a hierarchical process for the determination of the model parameters relying more on simple curve fitting of model equations to experimental data points corresponding to specific soil states instead of trial-and-error simulations of entire experiments. Model parameter values are determined for London Clay, San Francisco Bay Mud, Boston Blue Clay and Lower Cromer Till, and the performance of the model in simulating mechanical response of clays is demonstrated for a variety of initial states and loading conditions.     

A standard Rhizocarpon nomenclature for lichenometry

The terminology of the genus Rhizocarpon , as used by lichenometrists, is at present confused and vague. The failure to differentiate even to the section level has resulted in errors in dating and has made the comparison of growth rates derived for different parts of the world difficult, if not impossible. The use of a standard nomenclature would clarify the degree of species differentiation that has been attempted in any given study.     

结构性粘土的堆砌体模型

天然粘土一般都具有结构性, 其变形过程必然伴随着结构的破坏。 提出了一种新型的堆砌体模型, 用以描述这种结构破坏现象。 这一模型把变形过程中的结构性土看作不同大小土块的集合体, 总的变形将由土块的弹性变形、土块之间滑动引起的塑性变形和土块破碎引起的损伤变形三部分组成。 塑性变形常用屈服函数描述, 损伤变形则可以引入一种类似的损伤函数加以描述。推导了相应的应力应变关系式并提出了模型参数的测定方法。     

粗粒土的一种应变硬化模型

堆石料等粗粒土在经受剪切时不仅其强度和刚度随应力水平而变化,其体积变化特征也和应力水平密切相关。在Mohr-Coulomb模型的基础上,提出一个针对这类粗粒土剪切特征的应变硬化模型。模型以Mohr-Coulomb准则作为屈服准则,但考虑土体强度、刚度和体积变化特征均随应力水平而变化等重要特性。对Rowe剪胀理论的推导及其试验基础进行了深入讨论,指出该理论对于粗粒土的局限性,并在此基础上针对粗粒土的剪胀特性进一步发展给出其机动剪胀角的变化规律。与试验结果的计算对比表明,该模型能较为全面地反映粗粒土的主要剪切特性,特别是剪切时的体积变化特性,且相对简便实用。     

A constitutive model for crushed salt

A constitutive model for crushed salt is presented in this paper. A creep constitutive model is developed first and compared with test results. The constitutive model presented here concentrates on creep deformation because saline media behave basically in a ductile and time‐dependent way. An idealized geometry is used as a common framework to obtain stress–strain macroscopic laws based on two deformation mechanisms: fluid‐assisted diffusional transfer creep and dislocation creep. The model is able to predict strain rates that compare well with results from laboratory tests under isotropic and oedometric conditions. Macroscopic laws are written using a non‐linear viscous approach, which incorporates also a viscoplastic component, based on critical state theory. The viscoplastic term is intended for non‐creep deformation mechanisms such as grain reorganization and crushing. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A quadrupole system for induction soundings

It is shown that vertical focusing of the normal magnetic field can be performed using a quadrupole induction system. The frequency dependence of apparent resistivity calculated from the real part of the measured magnetic field allows effective detection of anomalously conducting objects, even in the cases where the investigated object is overlapped by a thick layer with high electrical conductivity.     

地震剖面线条化的一种简单算法

地震剖面线条化是应用模式识别方法自动追踪剖面中的同相轴, 并自动绘制线条图.首先探测地震道中的周波, 并描述周波属性, 然后根据相邻三道周波相关的目标函数最小原则追踪同相轴, 描述同相轴属性, 并记录同相轴属性表.根据同相轴属性表, 可对地震剖面进行基于同相轴属性的统计分析和滤波以及定量解释.本文对现有的地震剖面线条化方法进行了改进简化, 实现地震剖面同相轴快速自动追踪和自动绘制线条图.合成数据和实际数据试验表明该方法计算简单、快速、有效.      

A model for assessing iceberg hazard

Natural Hazards - With the polar regions opening up to more marine activities but iceberg numbers more likely to increase than decline as a result of global warming, the risk from icebergs to...     

粘土的双硬化模型

本文中建议了一个包含塑性体应变和偏应变两个硬化参数的封闭屈服面模型，可以同时应用于正常固结土和超固结土。该模型沿用了剑桥模型的参数测定方法，而大大拓展其适用范围。通过正常固结试样、超固结试样和应力路线转折条件下计算与试验曲线的对比，说明该模型有较广泛的适应性。