尼泊尔Mw 7.9级地震同震垂直位移与断层运动模型

2015年4月25日尼泊尔地区发生了Mw 7.9级地震,发震断层位于印度板块与欧亚板块碰撞边界带,此次地震是一次典型的板块逆冲型事件。利用中国境内加密的GPS同震观测资料,融合ALOS-2卫星L波段的InSAR（interferometric synthetic aperture radar）同震形变数据,基于最小二乘方法获得了此次地震的同震垂直位移场。同震垂直位移结果表明,此次地震造成尼泊尔加德满都地区抬升约0.95 m,珠穆朗玛峰地区受地震的影响有所下降,其主峰的沉降量为2~3 cm,中国境内的希夏邦马主峰沉降约为20 cm。地区利用改进的二维弹性半空间位错模型反演了发震断层运动参数,本文模型显示此次地震的断层面破裂宽度约为60 km,平均滑动量达到4 m,相当于Mw 7.89级。     

InSAR数据约束下2016年和2022年青海门源地震震源参数及其滑动分布

中国青海省门源县于2016年和2022年分别发生了Mw 5.9和Mw 6.7地震,相距不足40 km。利用欧洲空间局Sentinel-1A升降轨雷达影像,采用合成孔径雷达干涉测量(interferometric synthetic aperture radar, InSAR)技术分别获取两次地震的同震地表形变场,进而利用弹性半空间的位错模型确定上述事件的震源参数,基于分布式滑动模型反演确定两次地震断层面上的滑动分布,并探讨2016年门源地震对2022年门源地震的发震影响及触发机制。结果表明,2016年门源地震为逆冲型地震,并未破裂到地表,升、降轨同震形变场沿视线向的最大形变量分别为6.7 cm和7.0 cm,断层的最大滑动量为0.53 m,主要集中在地下4~12 km区域滑动。2022年门源地震同震形变场沿NWW-SEE向破裂,降轨影像最大视线向地表形变量为78 cm,断层的最大滑动值达到3.5 m,处于地下4 km左右,断层滑动分布模型揭示此次地震为左旋走滑型地震;结合冷龙岭断裂的运动性质和几何特征,可初步判定发震断层主要为冷龙岭断裂的西段、且极有可能破裂到了其西北端西侧的托莱山断裂。静态库仑应力触发关系显示,2016年门源地震对2022年门源地震的发生有一定的促进作用。     

联合地震位错模型和InSAR数据构建2017年九寨沟Mw 6.5地震同震三维形变场

利用哨兵（Sentinel）-1A卫星升、降轨影像,在地震位错模型约束下获取了2017年九寨沟Mw 6.5地震的高质量三维形变场。首先,利用合成孔径雷达干涉测量技术（interferometric synthetic aperture radar,InSAR）提取九寨沟地震升、降轨同震形变场;然后,通过“两步法”反演获取该地震发震断层的几何参数和分布式滑动模型,以此为约束,采用方差分量估计算法联合解算九寨沟地震三维形变场。结果表明,九寨沟地震同震三维形变场以水平位移为主,垂向形变较弱;南北向形变呈拉张趋势,断层上盘向南、下盘向北滑动,最大位移分别为－19.81 cm和14.38 cm;东西向形变不对称性明显,断层上盘西北部向东水平运动,最大位移为18.37 cm,下盘东南部向西运动,最大位移不足8 cm。将南北、东西向形变与6个全球导航卫星系统（global navigation satellite system,GNSS）台站观测数据进行比较,两者一致性较好且均方根误差较小,分别为1.44 cm和1.77 cm,表明联合升、降轨InSAR观测和地震位错模型约束构建同震三维形变场方法具有较高可行性,显著降低了大地测量数据不足、InSAR观测对南北向形变不敏感等问题的影响。     

利用断层自动剖分技术的2008年青海大柴旦Mw6．3级地震InSAR反演研究

2008-11-10青海大柴旦地区发生了Mw6．3级地震,其发震断层位于青藏高原东北缘的大柴旦一宗务隆山断裂带。利用欧空局Envisat／ASAR卫星雷达影像数据,采用二通差分干涉技术获得了地震的同震地表形变场,基于1D协方差函数估计InSAR同震形变场的中误差为0．52cm,方差一协方差衰减距离为5．9km。在此基础上,采用弹性半空间矩形位错模型进行断层几何参数反演,并利用断层自动剖分技术确定了地震的最佳同震滑动分布模型。结果表明,该地震的震源机制解为走向107．19°,倾角56．57°,以逆冲为主兼具少量右旋走滑分量;滑动分布主要发生在10-20km深度范围内,最大滑动量为0．51m,释放的能量为4．3×10^18Nm。     

基于多源SAR数据的2022年门源Ms 6.9地震同震破裂模型反演研究

2022年1月8日青海省海北州门源县发生Ms 6.9地震,震中位于青藏高原东北缘祁连-海原断裂中段,属历史地震空区,基于多源合成孔径雷达（synthetic aperture radar,SAR）遥感数据研究该地震的破裂模式对理解青藏高原东北缘构造变形机制、应变释放过程以及地震危险性评估具有重要意义。首先利用Sentinel-1数据和合成孔径雷达差分干涉测量（differential interferometry synthetic aperture radar,D-InSAR）技术获取了门源地震的同震形变场,视线（line of sight,LOS）向形变场显示此次地震造成了约20 km长的地表破裂,最大形变约0.75 m;然后基于Sentinel-2卫星数据,利用光学影像配准和相关技术获取了本次地震的东西向同震形变场,最大同震位移达2.5 m;最后基于均匀弹性半无限位错模型,以LOS向形变场为约束反演了断层的滑动分布模型。结果显示,门源地震是一次典型的左旋走滑型地震,地震破裂主要集中在0~10 km深度范围,最大滑动量3.25 m,滑动角10.44°,对应深度4.89 km;反演给出的矩震量为1.07×1019 N·m,对应矩震级Mw 6.6。结合野外考察和地质资料,初步判定发震断裂为冷龙岭断裂,并引起托莱山断裂发生同震滑动。同震库仑应力结果显示,冷龙岭断裂东段和托莱山断裂西段应力状态为加载,未来具有发生强震的风险。     

Sentinel-1 observations of the 2016 Menyuan earthquake: A buried reverse event linked to the left-lateral Haiyuan fault

Knowledge on the interaction of active structures is essential to understand mechanics of continental deformation and estimate the earthquake potential in complex tectonic settings. Here we use Sentinel-1A radar imagery to investigate coseismic deformation associated with the 2016 Menyuan (Qinghai) earthquake, which occurred in the vicinity of the left-lateral Haiyuan fault. The ascending and descending interferograms indicate thrust-dominated slip, with the maximum line-of-sight displacements of 58 and 68 mm, respectively. The InSAR observations fit well with the uniform-slip dislocation models except for a larger slip-to-width ratio than that predicted by the empirical scaling law. We suggest that geometric complexities near the Leng Long Ling restraining bend confine rupture propagation, resulting in high slip occurred within a small area and much higher stress drop than global estimates. Although InSAR observations cannot distinguish the primary plane, we prefer the west-dipping solution considering aftershocks distribution and the general tectonic context. Both InSAR modelling and aftershock locations indicate that the rupture plane linked to the Haiyuan fault at 10 km depth, a typical seismogenic depth in Tibet. We suggest that the earthquake more likely occurred on a secondary branch at a restraining bend of the Haiyuan fault, even though we cannot completely rule out the possibility of it being on a splay of the North Qilian Shan thrusts.     

基于 D-InSAR 技术的当雄地震形变场提取研究

随着D-InSAR技术在同震形变量测方面的优势日益突出,文中以2008年10月6日当雄Mw6.3级地震为对象,采用ENVISAT搭载的ASAR传感器c波段在图像模式下的5景level 0级影像,以90 m分辨率的SRTM DEM作为外部DEM,使用GAMMA软件采用二轨差分干涉测量的方法获取当雄地震同震形变场,并对其进行分析,确定震中位置为90.372°E,29.734°N,得到同震垂直形变约为33cm,形变量精度达到厘米级。     

2015年尼泊尔地震同震滑动及震后余滑的三角位错模型反演

2015年尼泊尔Mw 7.9级地震发生在印度板块向欧亚板块低角度俯冲的喜马拉雅断裂带上。对该地震的滑动模型进行精化,对于理解喜马拉雅断裂带的孕震模式具有重要意义。采用三角形位错元构建主喜马拉雅断裂“双断坡”几何模型,联合全球定位系统（Global Positioning System,GPS）和合成孔径雷达干涉测量（interferometric synthetic aperture radar,InSAR）资料反演2015年尼泊尔地震同震滑移及震后余滑。结果表明,尼泊尔地震最大同震滑移达到7.8 m,深度为15 km,位于中地壳断坡和浅层断坪的接触部位。不考虑中地壳断坡结构会使反演的最大滑移量偏低。震后余滑主要分布在同震破裂区北侧,释放的地震矩为1.02×1020 N·m,相当于一次Mw 7.3级地震,约占主震释放地震矩的12%。同震库伦应力变化和震间断层闭锁分布均表明,尼泊尔地震破裂区南部宽约60 km的区域仍具有较高的地震危险性。     

Conjugate ruptures and seismotectonic implications of the 2019 Mindanao earthquake sequence inferred from Sentinel-1 InSAR data

In 2019, four strong earthquakes of Mw>6.4 occurred successively in Mindanao, Philippines. Based on the reports from the USGS and PHIVOLCS, these earthquakes were dominated by strike-slip ruptures. Whether these earthquakes are temporally and spatially related remained unknown. We characterized the coseismic displacement fields during the earthquake sequence using an InSAR technique with Sentinel-1 SAR data. The InSAR deformation measurements convincingly reveal that the four earthquakes produced distinct coseismic displacement patterns. We estimated the source parameters of the earthquakes with a two-step inversion strategy. The optimal model suggests that the earthquake sequence resulted from the reactivation of a conjugate fault structure that involves two nearly vertical left-lateral strike-slip faults and two high-angle right-lateral strike-slip faults. We calculated Coulomb stress changes from the earthquake sequence, suggesting that the previous strong earthquakes had significant stress-encouraging effects on the following events. The regional velocities based on the GPS analysis suggest that the formation of this conjugate structure is mainly due to the westward movement of the subducting Philippine Sea Plate. This earthquake sequence provides a seismotectonic background for subsequent strong earthquakes and helps to better understand the formation mechanisms and seismotectonic implications of conjugate structure rupturing.     

强震时空统计分析及InSAR同震形变场空间分布特征

收集整理了全球1976年至2022年初的198个强震（Mw≥7.5）信息,统计分析了强震发生的时空分布、震源深度分布和强震发震类型占比,并结合公开发表的典型强震的合成孔径雷达干涉测量（interferometric synthetic aperture radar,InSAR）同震形变场图,分析了强震同震形变的空间分布特征。研究表明,强震空间分布呈条带状聚集,主要位于环太平洋地震带和喜马拉雅-地中海地震带,强震大多发生在各大板块交界处,与现代大地测量观测到的地壳强应变区域重合;强震时间分布存在活跃期和平静期交替出现的现象,1976―1992年为相对平静期,1992年至今为相对活跃期,强震发生频率有逐年增加趋势;在收集的全球198个强震中,发生在海洋中的强震占大多数,陆地强震仅有44个,且绝大多数强震属于逆冲断层地震,按震源深度统计,浅源强震最多且分布广泛,占比达81.3%;InSAR卫星对地观测新技术可以捕获强震的全域同震形变场,详细呈现强震同震形变的空间范围和分布特征,其中陆地强震同震形变波及的范围主要集中在发震断层两侧附近的条带状区域,离断层越远,形变衰减越快,而且形变关于断层呈不对称性。运用全球覆盖的InSAR和全球导航卫星系统地壳形变监测技术,拼接全球不同位置的活动断层形变信息片段,有可能揭示陆地强震的全周期孕震形变过程。     

地震破裂模型约束的中国阿里地震三维形变场

利用环境卫星（Environmental Satellite,Envisat）的升、降轨数据在地震破裂模型约束下获取2007年阿里地震的高质量同震地表三维形变场。首先,对合成孔径雷达（synthetic aperture radar,SAR）影像进行差分干涉处理,得到地震造成的视线向同震地表形变场;然后,以地震破裂模型为约束条件,采用赫尔默特方差分量估计法来解算阿里地震的高质量地表三维同震形变场。结果表明,震中区域最大下沉达约4.7 cm,东西向位移较小,南北向呈挤压趋势。总体上,三维形变的特征表明阿里地震是一个以正倾滑为主兼少量右旋走滑运动的地震事件。     

门源Mw5.9级地震形变InSAR观测及区域断裂带深部几何形态

利用Sentinel-1A卫星升轨、降轨合成孔径雷达影像数据,提取了2016年门源Mw5.9级地震的高精度合成孔径雷达干涉同震形变场,利用单纯形法和非负最小二乘法反演确定了地震断层几何和滑动分布,并构建了区域断裂带的深部几何形态模型。结果表明,门源Mw5.9级地震同震形变以地表抬升为主,沿升轨、降轨视线向的最大值分别为5.3 cm、7.1 cm;地震断层走向、倾角分别为133°、43°;地震滑动以逆冲为主,主要发生在地下6.14~12.28 km处,最大滑动量约0.5 m,平均滑动角为66.85°,地震矩为1.0×1018 N·m（Mw5.94）;形变观测拟合残差均方根为0.36 cm;区域断裂带的深部几何形态以花状构造为特征,整体倾向南西,门源地震发震断裂为花状构造中未出露地表的盲断层。相关成果能够为研究区域地壳运动与变形、活动断裂与地震孕育发生等提供参考。     

2016年意大利阿马特里切Mw 6.2地震震源机制InSAR反演

2016年8月24日,意大利中部阿马特里切（Amatrice）地区发生Mw 6.2地震。采用ALOS-2条带模式和SENTINEL-1A宽幅模式的合成孔径雷达（synthetic aperture radar,SAR）数据分别进行SAR差分干涉测量处理,获取了该地震的同震形变场。结果显示,本次地震造成意大利中部地区发生明显的地壳形变,在雷达视线向最大沉降量达19.6 cm。基于合成孔径雷达干涉测量（interferometry synthetic aperture radar,InSAR）和GPS同震形变场数据对此次地震的发震断层进行联合反演,通过改进倾角和平滑系数获取方法,得到了最优滑动分布模型。通过使用单断层模型和双断层模型进行反演可知,双断层模型反演结果优于单断层反演结果,两种模型下反演模型相关系数分别为0.85和0.89,发震断层走向分别为160°和158°,倾角分别为44°和46°,倾滑分布主要位于地下5~7 km,平均倾滑角为-80°,最大倾滑量0.9 m位于地壳深度5 km处,该发震断层是亚平宁冲断带的一部分,为NW-SE向延伸的正断层,断层长约20 km。综合使用地震同震形变场和GPS数据对震源机制进行反演、模拟和分析,获取了高精度的震源参数,可以为分析地震危险性和断层破裂参数等提供数据支持。     

基于GIS的InSAR结果分析方法及在汶川Mw7.9级地震同震解释中的应用

利用GIS对InSAR结果进行分析可以更全面地解释地表形变机制。介绍了利用GIS对SAR影像进行裁剪、切割和拼接处理、剖面和等值分析的方法。在此基础上,以汶川Mw7.9级地震为例介绍了基于GIS的InSAR结果分析方法在地震形变机制解释方面的应用:①根据InSAR距离向偏移量和同震形变场,利用GIS技术提取了汶川Mw7.9级地震发震断层的地表迹线;②将基于位错模型正演得到的视线向形变场与InSAR同震形变场进行比较,得到了汶川地区InSAR同震形变场的上盘和整体改正数,进一步借助GIS进行修正得到了更为真实的InSAR同震形变场;③利用2D/3DInSAR同震形变场、干涉纹图和剖面分析结果对汶川Mw7.9级地震同震形变特征进行了具体分析和解释。     

Increased accuracy of geostatistical prediction of nitrogen dioxide in the United Kingdom with secondary data

Five techniques were used to map nitrogen dioxide (NO₂) concentrations in the United Kingdom. The methods used to predict from point data, collected as part of the UK NO₂ diffusion tube network, were local linear regression (LR), inverse distance weighting (IDW), ordinary kriging (OK), simple kriging with a locally varying mean (SKlm) and kriging with an external drift (KED). These techniques may be divided into two groups: (i) those that use only a single variable in the prediction process (IDW, OK) and (ii) those that make use of additional variables as a part of prediction (LR, SKlm and KED). Nitrous oxides emission data were used as secondary data with LR, SKlm and KED. It was concluded that SKlm provided the most accurate predictions based on the summary statistics of prediction errors from cross-validation.     

Deriving 3D coseismic deformation field by combining GPS and InSAR data based on the elastic dislocation model

The density of GPS measurements is usually one of the key issues in resolving 3-D coseismic deformation field from integrating GPS and Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (InSAR) measurements with pure mathematic interpolation methods An approach that combines the elastic dislocation model with the Best Quadratic Unbiased Estimator (BQUE) or a robust estimation method named IGG (Institute of Geodesy and Geophysics) is proposed to reconstruct 3-D coseismic deformation field, in which only a small amount of GPS data is needed to produce a reasonable initial 3-D coseismic deformation. Then the BQUE and IGG are used to weight the InSAR and GPS measurements to avoid computational issues caused by the negative variance problem and to decrease the impact from gross errors. The Wenchuan earthquake is used to test the proposed method. We find that the developed method makes it possible to use only a few GPSs and InSAR data to recover the 3-D coseismic deformation field, which offers extensive future usage for measuring earthquake deformation, particularly in some tectonically active regions with sparse GPS measurements.     

九寨沟Ms7.0地震的同震形变场误差研究及断层滑动分布反演

北京时间2017年8月8日四川省九寨沟发生Ms7.0级地震。为了提高断层滑动分布反演的可靠性,本文利用升降轨InSAR数据联合反演断层滑动分布,再根据模拟形变值二次反演,对比反演结果来探讨升降轨形变场误差和确定断层滑动分布的结果。结果表明,九寨沟升轨同震形变场的质量较好,降轨形变场受余震、震后粘弹性松弛效应影响明显,利用模拟形变值二次反演确定的断层滑动分布可靠性更高。     

Coseismic surface deformation of the 2014 Napa earthquake mapped by Sentinel-1A SAR and accuracy assessment with COSMO-SkyMed and GPS data as cross validation

ABSTRACT

The new land observation satellite Sentinel-1A was launched on 25 April 2014 with a C-band synthetic aperture radar (SAR) sensor, which has the significant enhancements in terms of revisit period and high resolution. The Mw 6.1 Napa, California earthquake occurring on 24 August 2014, almost 4 months after the launch, is the first moderate earthquake imaged by the Sentinel-1A. This provides an opportunity to map the coseismic deformation of the event and evaluate the potential of Sentinel-1A SAR for earthquake study. Two techniques including the interferometric SAR (InSAR) and pixel offset-tracking (PO) are, respectively, employed to map the surface deformation along the radar line of sight (LOS), azimuth and slant-range directions. The cross comparison between Sentinel-1A InSAR LOS deformation and GPS observations indicates good agreement with an accuracy of ～2.6?mm. We further estimate the earthquake source model with the external COSMO-SkyMed InSAR and GPS data as constraints, and forward calculate the surface deformation as cross validation with the Sentinel-1A observations. The comparison between the observed and modeled deformation shows that the Sentinel-1A measurement accuracy can achieve 1.6?cm for InSAR technique along LOS direction, and 6.3 and 6.7?cm for PO along azimuth and range directions, respectively.     

Surface deformation associated with the 2008 Ms8.0 Wenchuan earthquake from ALOS L-band SAR interferometry

The Ms8.0 Wenchuan earthquake (in China) occurred on 12 May 2008 as a result of slip on the northeastern-striking Longmen Shan (LMS) faults beneath the rugged margin between the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau and Sichuan Basin. The catastrophic event caused significant surface ruptures and permanent ground displacement in a wide area. This paper concentrates on mapping surface deformation caused by the main shock with the interferometric synthetic aperture radar (InSAR) technology. The coseismic interferogram covering an area of over 83,000 km² is computed with use of 46 SAR images that were collected along 6 adjacent ascending orbits by the L-band SAR sensor onboard the Japanese Advanced Land Observing Satellite (ALOS). The displacements measured at 16 GPS sites are used to check the accuracy of the InSAR deformation measurements. The radar coherence is computed and analyzed in relation to the topography and the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) estimated from the Landsat-7 imagery. The results show that the coseismic surface deformation can be mapped up to a centimeter-accuracy level even over the highly mountainous and heavily vegetated area with the L-band interferometer. It is also demonstrated that the L-band interferograms with time interval of months to years can still maintain acceptable radar coherence for deformation extraction over the area under the extreme conditions. The extracted InSAR deformation measurements show that the lands in the Sichuan Basin had moved 0.1–1.3 m toward the satellite along the radar line of sight (LOS) direction with an azimuth of 349.8° and an elevation angle of 51.3°, while the lands in the LMS area had moved 1.4 m at most away from the satellite.     

The spatial response pattern of coseismic landslides induced by the 2008 Wenchuan earthquake to the surface deformation and Coulomb stress change revealed from InSAR observations

The 2008 Mw 7.9 Wenchuan earthquake triggered plenty of coseismic giant landslides, which resulted in almost one third of total fatalities and economic losses during the event. Previous studies investigated the spatial relations between landslide distribution and topographic and seismic factors such as elevation, slope aspect, distance from rupture trace and seismic intensity. However, few studies are performed exploring the effects of coseismic surface deformation and Coulomb stress change on triggering landslides due to lack of adequate deformation observation data and stress calculation model for slope failure. In this study, we develop an envelope method to map an entire coseismic deformation field in both near- and far-field areas of seismic faults through the data fusion from InSAR and pixel offset-tracking (POT) techniques. The change in static Coulomb stress (SCS) acting on coseismic landsliding surface caused by the event is determined using the faulting model derived from the joint inversion of InSAR and GPS data, and also with the use of the elastic half-space dislocation theory and the generalized Hook’s law. The analysis suggests the spatial response pattern of seismic landslides to the coseismic ground motion and stress change, especially in the vicinity of fault rupture trace. The landslide density dramatically rises with the stress increase within the range from Yingxiu to Beichuan areas along the major surface rupture. Moving further and eastward along the fault strike, most of large landslides are triggered as the zone of positive SCS change narrows. Moreover, the high-magnitude surface displacements are possibly responsible for the giant landsliding events in the easternmost section. From the analysis of the stress transfer, the occurrence of landslides in the study area is largely controlled by the Yingxiu-Beichuan fault with overwhelming rupture length and fault slip, yet the Pengguan fault indeed shows dominance in the area between the two faults. The results show that coseismic surface deformation (derived from InSAR data in this study) and static Coulomb stress change can serve as two significant controlling factors on seismic landslide distribution and that the stress factor seems more significant in the vicinity of surface rupture.