“Lessons for marine conservation planning: A comparison of three marine protected area planning processes”

Various approaches have been used to establish marine protected areas (MPAs) in different countries. In this paper we compare and review three processes to establish MPAs within the United States and Australia. These two countries share many similarities in their cultures, but their approaches to managing marine resources differ considerably. Each of these efforts to establish or review MPAs was motivated by concern about declines of targeted marine species or habitats. However, the government actions varied because of differences in governance, planning process including public input, and the role of science. Comparing these processes highlights effective approaches for protecting marine ecosystems and gaining public support.     

Governing marine protected areas: Social–ecological resilience through institutional diversity

Marine protected areas (MPAs) worldwide are facing increasing driving forces, which represent a major and increasing challenge for MPA governance. The Marine Protected Area Governance (MPAG) project examined a range of different incentives – economic, interpretative, knowledge, legal and participative – employed to address the driving forces and promote effectiveness in 20 case studies across the globe. This paper argues that, regardless of the MPA governance approach adopted (i.e., government-led, decentralised, private or community-led), resilience in MPA governance systems derives from employing a diversity of inter-connected incentives. The significance of institutional diversity to governance systems parallels that of species diversity to ecosystems, conferring resilience to the overall socio–ecological system. The paper concludes that, in the face of strong driving forces, rather than relying on particular types of incentives and institutions, it is important to recognise that the key to resilience is diversity, both of species in ecosystems and of institutions in governance systems.     

“Living with our backs to the sea”: A critical analysis of marine and coastal governance in Guatemala

Guatemala's rich coastal and marine biodiversity provides essential ecosystem goods and services to local residents and the national economy through artisanal and commercial fisheries, aquaculture, port exports and, to a lesser extent, tourism. As in many other countries, national policies emphasise the significance of marine conservation and marine resources, primarily through implementing marine protected areas (MPAs). However, this assumes that governance, as reflected in legal, institutional and organizational frameworks, political capacity and human resources is sufficiently developed to ensure MPAs meet these goals. These issues are explored through presenting the first detailed analysis of coastal and marine governance in Guatemala. The research highlights a range of barriers to good governance which restrict the extent to which MPAs can function effectively. Recommendations are made which can capitalise upon the potential for locally managed marine areas as a means to facilitate the improved governance of coastal and marine resources in Guatemala.     

Zoning strategies for marine protected areas in Taiwan: Case study of Gueishan Island in Yilan County,Taiwan

According to the United Nations (UN) Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, there has been a dramatic decline in global biodiversity. The UN has made a global appeal for all countries to mitigate their impact on the environment. Marine environmental protection is one of the most critical and urgent issues in the world and many countries have commenced establishing marine protected areas (MPAs) by implementing ecosystem-based management (EBM) concepts. MPA planning has been considered one of the simplest and most effective methods to protect marine environments. Taiwan has recently developed policies that have focused on its marine environment, and there are plans to increase the size of Taiwan׳s MPAs to 20% of its total ocean territory by 2020, thereby achieving a sustainable ocean. To achieve this goal, the government must address specific difficulties associated with the location of MPAs and relevant zoning strategies. This study establishes MPA protection principles and a zoning framework for MPAs in Taiwan by using Gueishan Island in Yilan County as a case study site to examine specific zoning strategies. The protection of 3 objectives (hydrothermal vents, cetacean, and fisheries resources) is discussed in this paper. Multi-criteria spatial analysis and a geographic information system are applied to identify the most crucial area to protect. To understand the stakeholders׳ opinions and concerns regarding the proposed zoning framework, this research conducted in-depth interviews with experts and stakeholders. MPAs zoning strategies are formulated at the conclusion of this study that could assist in protecting critical marine resources and avoiding conflicts among various usages of the marine area.     

A Policy-enabling framework for the ex-ante evaluation of marine protected areas

A marine protected area (MPA) potentially generates a wide range of consumptive use, non-consumptive use and non-use values that include: critical habitat protection, conservation of marine biodiversity, recovery of threatened and endangered marine species, increased recreational benefits and increased biomass of harvested marine species. To help assess whether such values exceed the potential costs of MPAs, this paper provides a policy-enabling framework that reviews the existing theoretical and practical instruments and approaches that can be used in the ex-ante evaluation of MPAs. This framework is in three parts. First, a range of alternative monetary and non-monetary techniques to estimate three key economic benefits of MPAs: consumptive, non-consumptive use and non-use values are presented. Second, three decision protocols that can be applied to determine the desirability of establishing MPAs are described. Third, caveats of these approaches and the necessity to accommodate social needs of the communities are provided. The framework shows that biological and ecological considerations together with economic viability and socio-economic factors can and should be taken into account when deciding about when and where to establish MPAs and of what size.     

Linking marine protected areas to integrated coastal and ocean management: A review of theory and practice

If managed in isolation, coastal and marine protected areas (MPAs) are vulnerable to natural resource development and exploitation occurring outside these areas—in particular, overfishing, alteration and destruction of habitats, and water pollution. Thus, protection of coastal and marine areas—of species, habitats, landscapes, and seascapes—should be integrated into spatial development strategies for larger areas, under the umbrella of integrated coastal and ocean management (ICM). This is typically easier said than done, since the actors involved in MPA networks and in ICM programs are often different, reflecting different cultures, networks of relationships, ministries, and goals and motivations.This article reviews the ecological, social and economic linkages between MPAs and the governance of broader ocean and coastal areas; sets forth nine guiding principles for managing MPAs within an ICM context; reviews work conducted under the Convention on Biological Diversity to operationalize the linkages between ICM and MPAs; and develops strategic guidance for addressing these linkages. The article ends with a call to bring together the diverse communities involved in marine protected areas, coastal and ocean management, and watershed management to collaborate in national-level ocean and coastal planning, including in the designation of networks of marine protected areas.     

A conceptual framework for the integral management of marine protected areas

A general conceptual framework for the management of marine protected areas (MPAs) was developed. The driver-pressure-state-impacts-response (DPSIR) framework was used to determine the elements affecting MPAs. The developed evaluation framework helped to select an appropriate suite of indicators to support an ecosystem approach, an assessment of the MPAs functioning and policy decisions. Gaps derived from the management and policy responses in the MPAs were also outlined. It was concluded that the DPSIR framework can help to simplify the complexity of MPA management. This document is a tool for policy makers, scientists and general public on the relevance of indicators to monitor changes and MPAs management.     

Marine conservation science and governance in North–West Europe: Conservation planning and international law and policy

Member States of the European Union are increasingly designating marine protected areas (MPAs) to meet globally agreed marine protection targets and regional commitments. A number of studies have examined the impact of the associated European policy on the representation of species and habitats but there is no comprehensive review of their combined impact on marine conservation in Europe. Here a systematic conservation planning framework is used to conduct such a review and compare the existing legislation to three elements of best practice, which are designed to identify MPA networks that achieve conservation goals whilst increasing the likelihood of implementation. In particular, this review investigates the extent to which legislation: (i) translates broad policy goals into explicit targets; (ii) incorporates socio-economic data into the planning process; and (iii) requires a social assessment. Whilst this legislation has widespread political support and has underpinned the rapid expansion of MPA networks, this review shows it largely fails to incorporate these key components from systematic conservation planning. Therefore, if European approaches to marine conservation are to fulfil their goal of halting marine biodiversity loss, it is essential they link existing policy frameworks with transparent strategies that account for local conditions and support implementation.     

Towards the 2012 marine protected area targets in Eastern Africa

The 1992 Convention on Biological Diversity has set ambitious targets for the establishment and management of protected areas. For the oceans, the overall aim is to establish, by 2012, an effectively managed, representative, global system of marine protected areas (MPAs) covering 10% of all marine ecological regions, comprising both multiple use areas and strictly protected areas. An analysis of data for three countries in Eastern Africa, where considerable efforts to promote MPAs by many agencies have been made over the past decade, shows that rapid progress has been made towards achieving this target. Since the first MPAs were established in the 1960s and 1970s, 8.7% of the continental shelf in Kenya, 8.1% in Tanzania and 4.0% in Mozambique has been designated, with the size of recently protected sites markedly larger than earlier sites. Commitments to expand the MPA networks in these countries would, if implemented, largely achieve the 10% coverage target. The location of existing marine protected areas shows good correlation with known sites of high species diversity; and coral reefs and Important Bird Areas are well represented. Management effectiveness of MPAs is also improving. However, there are major constraints to meeting the MPA target in these countries. Many habitats and species are not yet fully represented, the area closed to fishing is less than the recommended 20–30%, and capacity building is needed to improve many aspects of management. Furthermore, despite considerable investment in monitoring of coral reefs and other coastal habitats, the data available do not show clearly whether biodiversity and socio-economic objectives are being met. Although East African countries need to be congratulated for their vision, the results thus far indicate the urgency of both improving monitoring systems for measuring progress towards the targets, and also taking further steps to expand and improve management of existing MPAs.     

Developing a framework for displaced fishing effort programs in marine protected areas

As marine protected areas (MPAs) continue to be established, measures to address displaced effort are likely to become increasingly relevant. Recent experiences of displaced fishing effort programs for MPAs and recreational fishing reserves in Australia, together with two examples from the United States, are described. A practical framework for addressing displaced fishing effort is developed, which explores the likely displaced-effort scenarios and options when planning spatial commercial fishing closures for an MPA.     

Factors to consider in evaluating the management and conservation effectiveness of a whale sanctuary to protect and conserve the North Atlantic right whale (Eubalaena glacialis)

This paper examines key factors used in protecting the migratory North Atlantic right whale within the context of a marine protected area (MPA) system, using the Grand Manan Whale Conservation Area, in New Brunswick Canada, as a case study example. Designated as a conservation area in 1993, before the Oceans Act came into effect, the Grand Manan conservation area currently does not form part of the Canadian network of MPAs. Given the possibility that MPA designation may occur, the paper examines factors that should be considered in meeting International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) MPA design criteria and IUCN evaluation model requirements. An MPA evaluation framework based on an IUCN evaluation model (Hockings et al., 2000 [1]) is designed to assess the effectiveness of an MPA in protecting a migratory right whale. Case study results indicate that current management and research activities for the Grand Manan conservation area address most governance, biophysical and socio-economic issues under an IUCN evaluation framework. On a site basis, it is recommended that the Grand Manan conservation area be designated as a component of the Canadian network of MPAs and that regulations be developed and implemented under the Species at Risk Act to clearly define activities considered damaging or destructive to right whale critical habitat. Recommendations also suggest the preparation of a combined site management-action plan for the Grand Manan conservation area indicating how activities specified in North Atlantic Right Whale Recovery Strategy will be implemented locally. On a regional and international basis, recommendations call for an internationally coordinated and integrated approach to right whale protection within the context of a network of designated critical habitat areas. Recommended activities include: continued Canadian participation in cross-border research and actions to mitigate threats to the right whales over their migratory range; development of a regional right whale management and monitoring strategy; and designation of additional critical habitats in national/international waters. It is further recommended that the evaluation framework developed by this paper be used as a model in assessing the conservation and management effectiveness of MPAs protecting other migratory marine species.     

Ocean governance in the South Pacific region: Progress and plans for action

The Pacific Island Regional Ocean Policy (PIROP), which was released in 2002, provided the framework for ocean governance in the Pacific region. Since then there have been a myriad of policy documents and institutional arrangements that have been developed to address ocean governance issues, however, little progress has occurred with regard to the actual implementation of PIROP. This paper examines the region's progress in establishing integrated oceans management, and how this fits with the use of marine spatial planning and area based management tools, such as marine protected areas. It argues that policy making in this region encounters the usual difficulties with integrated policy approaches experienced elsewhere but that these difficulties are further accentuated when applied to developing nations that are highly dependent on external support. It suggests a way forward for the future with development of action plans, implementation and the practical application of those plans including a regional contextualisation/analysis of progress against regional objectives.     

A new typology of benefits derived from marine protected areas

Global decline of marine resources has triggered a worldwide demand for changing the way ocean resources are managed. Ecosystem-based management approaches have emerged using marine protected areas (MPA) as the main tool. Several classifications of marine protected areas benefits have been made, but all have focused only on the benefits to humans, neglecting many important benefits accrued to nature. This paper presents a new comprehensive classification of MPA benefits that will provide scientists and managers with an inclusive framework to accurately identify and account for all possible benefits derived from MPAs. The paper also analyses the methods available for valuing these benefits. A total of 99 benefits were identified within nine main categories: fishery, non-fishery, management, education/research, cultural, process, ecosystem, population and species benefits. These categories are arranged in two main divisions (direct and indirect benefits), which, at the same time, fall within the realms of benefits to humans and to nature.     

‘Doing the right thing’: How social science can help foster pro-environmental behaviour change in marine protected areas

Managers of marine protected areas (MPAs) are constantly challenged to encourage positive user behaviour to minimise impacts on marine ecosystems while allowing recreational use. Yet, some marine users continue to act in ways that diminish conservation values of the area. Drawing on social psychological theories, this paper presents a case for informed behaviour change strategies to reduce problem behaviours in MPAs and contribute to conservation efforts. Social psychological drivers of behaviour are explained and applied to an MPA context to demonstrate how they can inform strategies for predicting and changing behaviour using persuasive communication. As behavioural and persuasive communication theories are seldom invoked and almost never rigorously applied to MPAs, the review offers new theoretical and practical insights into how they can assist MPA management to target and shift specific behaviours that ultimately support marine park values.     

Applying the large marine ecosystem (LME) governance framework in the Wider Caribbean Region

The large marine ecosystem (LME) governance framework was developed to address the complexity inherent within the Wider Caribbean Region with respect to the region's shared living marine resources. The framework is adaptable to all multi-scale living marine resource situations and provides a basis for incremental implementation of interventions. Parts of the overall governance framework can be targeted for sub-framework development and strengthening through institutional reforms and capacity building. Three examples, the Eastern Caribbean flyingfish fishery, marine protected area (MPA) management and the Eastern Caribbean tuna fishery, are used to illustrate the application of the framework in facilitating and assessing governance effectiveness in the Caribbean. In each case, the purpose is to show the different governance questions that must be addressed at policy, strategy and action levels to make up a complete governance arrangement and how these are distributed among several levels on the institutional scale that typically occur in regional marine resource governance.     

Protected areas in marine resource management: another look at the economics and research issues

This paper reviews the research to date that relates to the economics of marine protected areas (MPAs). A special effort is made to examine the evidence on the benefits and costs of MPAs in terms of consumptive and nonconsumptive marine resource interests. General observations are made regarding the net effects of MPAs on these two stakeholder categories and the potential institutional costs of MPA implementation are highlighted. In general, the review finds that the empirical research on the economics of MPAs is limited and that there are several issues that might merit further investigation. The researchable topics are suggested as a way to better understand the socioeconomic impacts of MPAs and the potential response of stakeholders to proposed protected areas.     

Co-management and adaptive co-management: Two modes of governance in a Honduran marine protected area

Selecting the best mode of governance for marine protected areas (MPAs) especially in developing countries has generated considerable controversy in the academic and policy literature during the last 20 years. In this article, two modes – co-management (CM) and adaptive co-management (ACM) – are analysed in detail, and an examination is made of an attempt to put these modes sequentially into practice in the first (2003–2009) and second (2008–2013) management plans, respectively, of the Cayos Cochinos MPA (CCMPA) in Honduras. Extensive fieldwork was carried out during 2006–2010 in three communities dependent on the CCMPA (Rio Esteban, Nueva Armenia, and Chachahuate) including key informant interviews, focus group meetings, household surveys, and participant observation. The paper’s findings are (1) that while the first plan implemented some CM principles (such as sharing responsibility between government, stakeholders and NGOs) it failed to deliver other CM principles (such as transparency and accountability); and (2) that while the second plan increased participation and transparency, and used a more adaptive approach, it still left many stakeholders out of the decision-making process, and its processes of experimentation, monitoring and social learning were very limited. The fact is that CM and ACM are laudable objectives, but very difficult to implement in full.     

Evaluating the effectiveness of management of the Malindi–Watamu marine protected area complex in Kenya

An assessment of management effectiveness of Kenya's oldest marine protected areas (Malindi and Watamu) was conducted within the framework of a regional assessment in Kenya, Seychelles and Tanzania. Biophysical, socio-economic and governance indicators were used to assess the delivery of MPA management objectives. Results indicate that the Malindi and Watamu marine parks that are no-take areas are making progress towards meeting their stated objective of biodiversity conservation. The 1997–1998 ENSO related bleaching event caused the greatest single measurable impact on the coral reefs of the marine parks leading to very high levels of coral mortality. The marine reserve where fishing is regulated was less effective in meeting its objective of sustaining community livelihoods. The weakest trends were related to the development of governance structures. A combination of management inefficiencies due to overlapping mandates, financial and administrative constraints, and inadequate stakeholder participation interacted to reduce the ability of the MPAs to fully achieve their objectives.     

Development and management of a network of marine protected areas in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden region

Selected and managed effectively, regional networks of marine protected areas (MPAs) have the potential to be important strategies for conserving representative samples of global biodiversity and migratory species, and for the development of trans-national experience in resource management and conservation. This paper reviews current and proposed regional networks of MPAs, and describes the process of establishing an MPA network in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden Region as a case study. Critical to the success of this network will be the implementation of a common, regionally agreed management framework, and the development of the necessary technical capacity and expertise in the planning and management of MPAs (currently lacking in several countries represented in the Network). This case study addresses the regional management framework, the mechanisms proposed to coordinate management of the participating MPAs, the mechanisms for strengthening regional capacity, and the potential constraints to achieving the objectives and goals of the network.     

Status of the marine protected area network across the English channel (La Manche): Cross-country similarities and differences in MPA designation,management and monitoring

Recent international policy developments require states to conserve at least 10% of coastal and marine areas by creating effectively managed and ecologically coherent networks of protected areas in the marine environment. In the framework of the PANACHE project, the current status of designation, management and monitoring of the network of marine protected areas (MPAs) of an important environmental, social and economic marine area: the English Channel (the Channel) was examined. Currently 224 MPAs exist belonging to 12 different designation categories and covering 17 440 km², or approximately 20.3% of the project area in the Channel. International protection targets in the marine environment are thus met at this regional scale, although the individual contributions of the UK and France are considerably different, with French MPAs accounting for nearly 80% of the total area protected. Differences between countries are also found regarding MPA designation categories (11 in France, 6 in the UK, 1 in the Channel Islands) and management structures (with more actors involved in the UK) and approach, whereas the monitoring techniques used are similar, although more standardised in the UK. Pending challenges include greater within-country and cross-country MPA designation, monitoring and management simplicity, integration and coordination as well as the assessment of management effectiveness and ecological coherence of the Channel network of MPAs.