Mapping ecosystem services for marine spatial planning: Recreation opportunities in Sub-Antarctic Chile

The ecosystem services approach has increasingly emerged as a core requirement of ecosystem-based management of the marine space. In this context, explicit quantification and mapping of ecosystem services is considered key. This research proposes a methodological framework that combines Geographic Information Systems and participatory techniques to map the ecosystem service of recreation opportunities, provided by coastal and marine ecosystems. Attributes selected to represent the ecosystem service were scenic beauty, unique natural resources, accessibility, cultural sites and tourism use aptitude. High values of the indicator concentrated on areas that combined the presence of unique marine fauna (e.g. Southern Elephant Seal, Mirounga leonina), terrestrial and marine routs, and areas of high scenic beauty, associated to the presence of glaciers. These areas corresponded to the southern part of Almirantazgo Sound, the northern part of Navarino Island on the coast of the Beagle Channel, and to areas surrounding Wulaia fishermen's cove. Zones showing highest values of the indicator 81–100) comprised 0.89% of the study area and a small proportion of them coincided with areas of aptitude for aquaculture, which represents potential use conflicts, as long as aquaculture concessions remain operative. In turn, the areas of lowest values 0–20) were located offshore in open sea, and comprised 0.49% of the study area. Overall, the methodology demonstrated the capacity to identify potential recreation areas to inform regional decision making regarding marine use planning.     

ScotMap: Participatory mapping of inshore fishing activity to inform marine spatial planning in Scotland

A detailed understanding of fishing activity in Scottish waters is required to inform marine spatial planning. Larger fishing vessels are fitted with Vessel Monitoring Systems (VMS) offering spatial information on fishing activity. VMS does not cover smaller vessels (under 15 m), which fish predominantly in inshore waters where the competition for space is often greatest. To improve knowledge of the distribution of fishing activity and value of fisheries in Scotland's inshore waters, Marine Scotland conducted a participatory fisheries mapping project, known as ScotMap. The data were collected during face-to-face interviews with 1090 fishermen of Scottish registered commercial fishing vessels under 15 m in overall length and relate to fishing activity for the period 2007–2011. Interviewees were asked to identify the areas in which they fish, estimate the contribution these areas make to vessel earnings, and to provide associated information. The majority of interviews relate to creel fishing. The data collected were aggregated to provide mapped outputs of the monetary value, relative importance to fishermen and the usage of the seas around Scotland (number of fishing vessels and number of crew). ScotMap outputs provide information on the locations of inshore fishing activities and the economic importance of different sea areas at a much higher spatial resolution than was previously possible. Outputs have informed marine policy development, provide a valuable resource for marine spatial planning in Scotland and illustrate how participatory mapping can generate useful resources on the location and importance of inshore fishing areas.     

Evaluation of marine spatial planning

Evaluation is generally recognised as an essential step for learning and improvement in marine spatial planning (MSP). Practical guidance and experience relative to evaluation in MSP is, however, very limited. To address this gap, this paper addresses a set of issues relevant for evaluation design and performance: the object of evaluation is discussed in relation to the functions of planning, the choice of objectives and the timing of evaluation; factors affecting causality attribution are analysed, namely multi-causality of observed effects, counterfactual design, time lags and uncertainty; and possibilities and requirements regarding stakeholder involvement in evaluation are considered.Six models of planning evaluation are reviewed, based on which a step-wise framework for MSP evaluation is developed. Future research should pilot test and assess this framework and broaden the evidence base relative to impacts of marine management initiatives.     

Guiding ecological principles for marine spatial planning

The declining health of marine ecosystems around the world is evidence that current piecemeal governance is inadequate to successfully support healthy coastal and ocean ecosystems and sustain human uses of the ocean. One proposed solution to this problem is ecosystem-based marine spatial planning (MSP), which is a process that informs the spatial distribution of activities in the ocean so that existing and emerging uses can be maintained, use conflicts reduced, and ecosystem health and services protected and sustained for future generations. Because a key goal of ecosystem-based MSP is to maintain the delivery of ecosystem services that humans want and need, it must be based on ecological principles that articulate the scientifically recognized attributes of healthy, functioning ecosystems. These principles should be incorporated into a decision-making framework with clearly defined targets for these ecological attributes. This paper identifies ecological principles for MSP based on a synthesis of previously suggested and/or operationalized principles, along with recommendations generated by a group of twenty ecologists and marine scientists with diverse backgrounds and perspectives on MSP. The proposed four main ecological principles to guide MSP—maintaining or restoring: native species diversity, habitat diversity and heterogeneity, key species, and connectivity—and two additional guidelines, the need to account for context and uncertainty, must be explicitly taken into account in the planning process. When applied in concert with social, economic, and governance principles, these ecological principles can inform the designation and siting of ocean uses and the management of activities in the ocean to maintain or restore healthy ecosystems, allow delivery of marine ecosystem services, and ensure sustainable economic and social benefits.     

Essential ecological insights for marine ecosystem-based management and marine spatial planning

The abrupt decline in the sea's capacity to provide crucial ecosystem services requires a new ecosystem-based approach for maintaining and recovering biodiversity and integrity. Ecosystems are places, so marine spatial planners and managers must understand the heterogeneity of biological communities and their key components (especially apex predators and structure-forming species), and of key processes (e.g., population connectivity, interaction webs, biogeochemistry) that maintain them, as well as heterogeneity of human uses. Maintaining resistance and resilience to stressors is crucial. Because marine populations and ecosystems exhibit complex system behaviors, managers cannot safely assume they will recover when stressors are reduced, so prevention is a far more robust management strategy than seeking a cure for degraded systems.     

Implementing marine spatial planning: A policy perspective

Marine spatial planning is often confronted with different types of hurdles that make the implementation of plans and strategies more difficult than scientists and planners—who have done most of the preparatory work—have foreseen. How does this situation come about? Is it due to the lack of interest or will of politicians? Are the technical proposals and plans too complex or too far from reality? Do they cost too much without comparable benefits? What can be done to avoid this? Based on recent experience within Belgium, some suggestions for more effective implementation of marine spatial plans are presented in this paper from a policy-making perspective.     

The international legal framework for marine spatial planning

Increasing demand for ocean resources, both living and non-living, have already lead to loss of biodiversity, habitat depletion and irreversible damage to the marine environment. Furthermore, introduction of new kinds of sea uses, spatial extension of ongoing sea uses and the need to better protect and conserve the marine biological diversity will result in increasing conflicts among the various users, as well as between the users and the environment. Marine spatial planning as a process to allocate space for specific uses can help to avoid user conflicts, to improve the management of marine spatial claims, and to sustain an ecosystem-based management of ocean and seas. This article explores the rights and duties towards exploitation and protection of the marine environment under the jurisdiction of coastal states as reflected in two important global conventions, the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea and the Convention on Biological Diversity. Both Conventions provide the main legal framework for marine spatial planning that have to be taken into account in planning at the regional and national level.     

Coming to the table: Early stakeholder engagement in marine spatial planning

From 2009 to 2011, marine spatial planning (MSP) rapidly gained visibility in the United States as a promising ocean management tool. A few small-scale planning efforts were completed in state waters, and the Obama Administration proposed a framework for large-scale regional MSP throughout the U.S. Exclusive Economic Zone. During that same time period, the authors engaged a variety of U.S ocean stakeholders in a series of dialogs with several goals: to share information about what MSP is or could be, to hear stakeholder views and concerns about MSP, and to foster better understanding between those who depend on ocean resources for their livelihood and ocean conservation advocates. The stakeholder meetings were supplemented with several rounds of in-depth interviews and a survey. Despite some predictable areas of conflict, project participants agreed on a number of issues related to stakeholder engagement in MSP: all felt strongly that government planners need to engage outsiders earlier, more often, more meaningfully, and through an open and transparent process. Equally important, the project affirmed the value of bringing unlike parties together at the earliest opportunity to learn, talk, and listen to others with whom they rarely engage.     

The value of marine biodiversity to the leisure and recreation industry and its application to marine spatial planning

The incorporation of the ecosystem approach into marine planning requires that all aspects of value associated with marine biodiversity are incorporated into the decision making process. An ecosystem services approach to valuing marine biodiversity is recognised as a framework by which economic, ecological and social values may be incorporated into the decision making process. There are sectors of the marine leisure and recreation industry (sub-aqua diving, sea angling and wildlife watching), which depend on the presence of natural marine resources in order to carry out their activity. Estimating the value of this direct use can provide an evidence base for the sustainable use of marine biodiversity when set against other competing economic interests in marine spatial planning. In the case study area of Lyme Bay, the marine leisure and recreation industry has been valued using both monetary and non-monetary methods. The results show that the leisure and recreation industry is dependent on the diversity of sites (many of which are currently unmanaged) and that the industry is of economic significance and an area which has recently been closed to trawling activity enables the protection of some of the most valuable sites but has limited benefits for protecting the full resource base upon which this local industry depends.     

欧美国家海洋空间规划研究进展

在人类活动向海洋不断扩张和海洋环境面临严重生态危机的现实背景下,欧美等海洋发达国家逐步形成了以生态系 统为基础的海洋空间规划理念。自2006 年联合国教科文组织召开第一届海洋空间规划国际研讨会以来,国外海洋空间规划 比较重视建立系统的空间规划理论与方法体系。一方面,注重构建海洋空间规划的理论基础,包括多类型的空间范畴,多目 标的规划管理,基于生态系统的管理,跨部门的综合管理等;另一方面,注重建立海洋空间规划的实施框架和方法,包括逐 步走向生态系统管理的技术框架,相关利益者的识别,海洋环境影响评价和生态价值评估等;此外,欧美等海洋发达国家从 用海现状、环境影响、海洋生态价值功能等进行区域实践论证,产生了许多对我国有借鉴意义的区域实践经验。     

海洋生态系统服务价值及评估研究进展

从服务产生的过程和学科两个角度对海洋生态系统服务概念进行了分析,以实际评估为出发点,讨论并优化了海洋生态系统服务的功能分类,并在此分类基础上,对各种功能进行分析,尤其是调节服务功能的评估方法及适用性,最后针对海洋生态系统服务价值评估未来的研究趋势进行展望.     

The engagement of stakeholders in the marine spatial planning process

Due to the interdependency that exists between the ecosystem resources and its users, successful implementation of ecosystem-based management depends on the identification and understanding of different stakeholders, their practices, expectations and interests. Today, many scientists and resource managers agree that the involvement of stakeholders is a key factor for a successful management regime in the marine environment. The way stakeholders are involved in the process must reflect, or at least address, the existing complexity of the specific context. A comprehensive method that allows doing this is by use of stakeholder analysis and mapping. This article will focus on the various types and stages of stakeholder participation in a marine spatial planning process, and will illustrate how to conduct a stakeholder analysis that allows the involvement of stakeholders in an adequate way that is sustainable over time.     

Exploring marine spatial planning education: Challenges in structuring transdisciplinarity

Marine Spatial Planning (MSP) has experienced vigorous growth on the international scale in recent years, and several practices has emerged from different countries. The demand for specific training in the preparation and implementation of marine planning has therefore already shown itself to be quite relevant on a global scale. Educational initiatives related to MSP have to respond to the increased complexity of MSP, which integrates environmental and economic perspectives on marine resources and maritime sectors, considering governance framework as well as maritime affairs and legislation.This paper aims at addressing the educational and training needs for the development of both academic education and professional training in MSP. Learning skills, contents and methods of an ‘ideal’ MSP course are depicted from widely accepted operative guides on MSP and from the EU Framework Directive on MSP (2014/89/EU). They are considered for the analysis of the current educational offer around MSP, performed in a sample of countries that have already undergone a process of implementation of MSP by Law. As result, beside the great variety of courses, it emerges that MSP education seems to be often regarded from an environmental perspective – in continuity with Integrated Coastal Management education – while planning theory and experiences in MSP are the least represented contents. Results are discussed in relation to three major challenges: i) how educational offer reflects on transdisciplinarity, ii) the role of theory in MSP courses, and iii) the enforceability of Plans as major concern in MSP.     

The emerging policy landscape for marine spatial planning in Europe

This paper provides an overview of the emerging policy landscape for marine spatial planning in the European Union, which consists of four main categories of policy drivers: environmental legislation, legislation on marine renewable energy, fisheries regulations and the Integrated Maritime Policy. The weak links between these categories of policy drivers, underpinned by a lack of clarity regarding the vision for sustainability, pose major challenges for the emergence of ecosystem-based and integrated marine spatial planning in Europe. In addition, there is still uncertainty arising from on-going reform of the Common Fisheries Policy, and discussions on the need for a new marine spatial planning directive. This paper concludes with the view that better integration of environmental concerns into the Common Fisheries Policy is needed to strengthen the link between environmental legislation and fisheries regulations, and that the existing policy landscape, particularly the Marine Strategic Framework Directive, already provides a legal framework for ecosystem-based marine spatial planning. Such a framework is consistent with the recognition that ecosystem conservation underpins other pillars of sustainable development and provides the foundation for cross-sectoral marine planning and management.     

Economic value of marine ecosystem services in Zanzibar: Implications for marine conservation and sustainable development

Marine ecosystem services are seriously undervalued, resulting in under-investment in conservation and lost opportunities for economic growth and poverty reduction. Economic valuation provides a powerful tool for sustainable development by showing how dependent the economy is on an ecosystem and what would be lost if the ecosystem is not protected. This paper estimates the value of marine ecosystem services in Zanzibar, links the values to the national income accounts, and quantifies how the benefits from each ecosystem service are distributed among five different stakeholder groups. Marine ecosystem services contribute 30% of GDP, yet the ecosystem is seriously degraded due to both human and natural causes. The paper explores the reasons for this, focusing on the distribution of benefits and the (dis)incentives this creates for conservation, especially among local communities that steward the marine ecosystem.     

福建近岸海洋生态系统服务面临的挑战与调控对策

本文分析了福建近岸海湾资源开发利用现状、发展趋势和存在的主要生态问题，认为生态系统服务是可持续发展目标实现的基本保证．文中着重指出了随着沿海港口建设和港口工业的快速发展，福建近岸海洋生态系统服务面临着严峻挑战；并提出了合理港口功能布局、建立染事污故应急联动处置机制、加大城市排海污水治理力度、实施入海污染物总量控制、对滨海湿地实施法制化管理和加强对赤潮的监控等维护海洋生态系统服务的调控对策．     

Communicating research on the economic valuation of coastal and marine ecosystem services

Quantifying the monetary value of ecosystem services (ES) provided by coastal and marine resources can help policy makers assess the trade-offs and synergies inherent in ecosystem-based management of marine and coastal environments, thus increasing the social efficiency of decision-making processes. As shown by the valuation literature, the number of coastal and marine management settings where valuation researchers have attempted to make a contribution is rising fast. However, this rise in research activity has not been matched by the increase in the use of economic valuation (EV) in the actual management of coastal and marine resources. This raises an interesting question: is EV responding to the needs of policy makers? This paper provides a comprehensive overview of the knowledge base regarding the economic values for coastal and marine ecosystems. It then discusses how to improve the uptake of ES valuation research by focussing on two core issues which are thought to be essential for more effective communication with the policy community.     

Practical tools to support marine spatial planning: A review and some prototype tools

Marine planners use spatial data to assess planning options. They need analytical approaches, methods, applications and practical software tools to enable assessment of the relationships between human uses and ecosystem components. Here the results of a two-stage process, aimed at developing practical and GIS-based tools for direct use by planners, are presented. First, some available tools for use in the early stages of plan development were reviewed; for example, to identify interaction between activities to reduce potential conflicts or assist in zone delineation, methods to facilitate a risk assessment of the cumulative effect of human pressures and tools offering decision support. Second, a stakeholder workshop was organised to identify routine marine planning tasks and the technical tools required to support those tasks. From the 39 practical tools reviewed, mostly published in peer-reviewed literature between 1998 and 2009, the majority have been applied in the marine environment in Europe, USA and Australia. It was observed that many of the tools are designed to be used by scientists, programmers or strategic planners with only a few that could be used by case officers (regulators). Together with the results of the stakeholder workshop a suite of prototype tools were developed that offer utility to marine planners. Thus the developed tools provide a solid basis for future development as they are a result of a transparent and participatory process.     

Planning the sea: The French experience. Contribution to marine spatial planning perspectives

As marine spatial planning is developing, prompted by the European Union through common principles prescribed in a road map, it is important to disseminate and analyse what has been put forward as the French experience in this field. Hence, the experience of the schémas de mise en valeur de la mer immediately proves to be original in its framework and deeply rooted in French specificities. However, a further analysis of this procedure implemented over several decades highlights the perspectives that would be worth integrating into French and European considerations. This paper thus provides information referring to the SMVM experience, presents an analysis of its results, and attempts to draw lessons from it with regard to recent developments in French marine policy.     

Using choice models to inform large marine protected area design

During the last decade a number of Large Marine Protected Areas (LMPAs) – marine protected areas that exceed a minimum size threshold and are often in offshore or open ocean waters – have been designated in an effort to meet marine conservation objectives. Research on the human dimensions of LMPAs is limited, though comprehensive policy analysis requires an understanding of the full range of social, cultural and economic benefits associated with LMPA designation. This paper addresses this need by employing a stated preference choice experiment survey of U.S. west coast households to examine public preferences for different protected area designs sited off the U.S. west coast. Using data from over 3000 randomly selected households in California, Oregon, and Washington we estimate choice models and calculate economic values for a suite of LMPAs that vary in size and in the types of restrictions within area boundaries. Results show that the LMPA size yielding the highest value is ~15.6% of the west coast Federal waters. Results also underscore the importance of restriction type, as there are considerably different threshold sizes above which diminishing returns and negative economic values are derived from no-access reserves, no-take, and multiple-use designations. While the value of any specific configuration can be estimated using the model, results offer insight on optimal use designations from a public perspective for small (< 2.5% of west coast Federal waters), medium (2.5%–~10%) and large (> 10%) LMPAs sited off the U.S. west coast.