Casualties in dry bulk shipping (1963–1996)

In recent years, bulk carriers have been identified with high risks of catastrophic structural failure and foundering, and with heavy loss of human life. This study, based upon Lloyd's of London casualty records, identified four risk factors that had significant, independent effect upon the likelihood of a bulk carrier foundering. The risk of foundering increased with the age of the ship, and was related to the ship's flag of registration. Most importantly, however, increased risks were found for heavy cargoes of iron ore and scrap steel or iron, and for trading routes to the Far East and from Europe to North America. Additional safety measures, in particular regarding ship design and high-risk trades, may well be necessary to reduce the high casualty rates.     

Probabilistic corrosion rate estimation model for longitudinal strength members of bulk carriers

Many bulk carrier losses have been reported of late, and one of the possible causes of such casualties is thought to be the structural failure of aging hulls in rough weather. Clearly, in such cases, vessels that start out being adequate somehow become marginal later in life. Fatigue and corrosion-related potential problems may be the most important factors affecting such age related vessel damage. With respect to fatigue, extensive studies have been done worldwide both experimentally and theoretically, and the results have been applied to some extent. However, in the case of corrosion effects, additional research is still needed to better understand, clarify and address the various strength uncertainties and their effects on structural behaviour. This paper develops a probabilistic corrosion rate estimation model for the longitudinal strength members of bulk carriers. The model is based on available statistical data for corrosion of existing bulk carriers. The corrosion data collected are documented for future use.     

散货船及油船垂向波浪载荷短期预报经验公式

应用WALCS软件对6艘散货船及6艘油船进行了短期波浪载荷直接计算,依据计算结果分析了这两种船型在航速为0、迎浪、均匀满载及隔舱满载工况下的船舯垂向弯矩、L/4(L为船长)处垂向剪力、3L/4处垂向剪力的若干规律。根据这些规律,总结出了一套针对散货船及油船的垂向波浪载荷短期预报经验公式。依据此经验公式,在缺乏完备图纸资料的情况下,可以快速估计航行于海上的受损船舶的短期载荷情况,为评估其安全状态提供数值依据,为事故船东方做出安全可行的处理决策提供优质服务。     

Wetland loss and the subdelta life cycle

The rapid deterioration of marsh habitat observed during recent years in the modern Mississippi River Delta is a consequence, at least in part, of the natural life cycle of subdeltas. With life spans typically less than 200 years, subdeltas or bay-fill deposits are scaled-down versions of major delta lobes, yet provide, through pulses of sediment, nearly all the subaerial land in an active delta. Using maps, charts, and aerial photographs, curves were constructed for rates of change in land area, sediment volume, and linear progradation in the four subdeltas that have formed on the modern Mississippi River Delta since the first accurate survey in 1838.Results indicate that each subdelta (1) lasted for approximately 115–175 years, (2) included both periods of growth and deterioration, (3) was initiated by a crevasse or break in the natural levee system, (4) showed linear advancement and volumetric growth during subaerial deterioration, and (5) displayed a new pulse of subaerial growth during the high discharge decade of the 1970s. Contrary to popular accounts, demise of the Mississippi River Delta through deterioration of its subdeltas is not a result of the construction of artificial levees upstream or discharge of sediment off the continental shelf edge. Rather, it is attributable to a substantial decrease and fining of sediments being transported downstream to depositional sites within a delta that has developed, through natural processes, a complex and inefficient channel network for delivering these sediments.     

1980—2008年莱州湾主要污染物的时空变化

莱州湾水质受河流入海、生活排污和养殖业等多方面影响,污染问题日益突出而备受关注。论文以1980—2008年间相关文献和监测数据为基础,研究了莱州湾主要污染物———无机氮、无机磷、COD浓度的变化趋势,并用网格化方法还原文献数据讨论污染物的区域分布特征。结果表明:莱州湾无机氮丰水期与枯水期浓度比1.26,无机磷1.07,COD 1.06,污染物主要是由陆源向海输运产生。无机氮是莱州湾的主要污染物,1990年代无机氮的年均浓度是1980年代的3.2倍,2001—2008年又增加了38%,2004年以来超出三类水质标准。NH4-N在1990年代之后占DIN比例由70%～85%下降到20%左右。无机磷、COD浓度近15a来保持在一类水质,但无机磷有潜在上升趋势。从区域分布看,第1区块受黄河口、小清河口影响是无机氮、无机磷的高值区。第2、3区块水质较好,而第4区块的无机氮、无机磷浓度自2004年之后已远远超过第1区块,莱州湾的主要污染源有黄河口向湾底诸河口转移的趋势,应引起重视。第4区块始终是COD的相对高值区。     

Distribution and alteration of amino acids in bulk DOM along a transect from bay to oceanic waters

A systematic survey of the concentrations and composition of total hydrolyzable amino acids (THAA) in bulk dissolved organic matter (DOM) was conducted at 11 stations along the 137°E transect from bay to oceanic areas in the northwestern Pacific. Concentrations of THAA and their contributions to dissolved organic carbon were high in the bay and coastal areas, declined toward the oceanic area and decreased with depth in the water columns. From the distribution patterns of the relative abundances of amino acids along the transect, individual amino acids were divided into four groups. One group included tyrosine, valine, isoleucine, phenylalanine, leucine and tryptophan, and was considered to represent easily degradable THAA, while glycine and alanine belonged to a more biorefractory group of THAA. Principal components analysis (PCA) was conducted to quantitatively differentiate patterns of amino acid composition. Amino acid groups based on PCA agreed with the groups classified by distribution patterns, indicating that first principal component scores reflected the degree of degradation of THAA in DOM, and were defined as a degradation index (DI). Two amino acids, glycine and alanine, increased in relative abundance with increasing DI, while valine, isoleucine, phenylalanine and leucine decreased with decreasing DI. The agreement indicated that the degradation process was the key factor controlling the quantity and quality of THAA in bulk DOM.     

深圳市1980—2020年填海空间演变及利益导向机制分析

填海空间作为连接陆地与海洋的重要部分,是陆海统筹发展的关键一环。文章以深圳为例,通过整理1980—2020年深圳市域的Landsat遥感影像,对填海规模及海岸线变化进行分析,结合发展背景将深圳填海历程分为4个阶段：试点发展下的临港企业自主建设(1980—1986年)、政企分离中的地方产业基建铺开(1986—1996年)、资源短缺下的政府双重角色强化(1996—2010年)和存量优化中的填海多元利益考量(2010—2020年)。最终填海总面积达91.68 km²,自然岸线保有率下降49.92%,且持续多年的填海对海岸带生态安全状况造成了负面影响。基于此,文章指出政府作为利益导向政策主体对其自身及企业和公众关于填海的行为观念产生了重要影响,最终推动了填海发展符合城市社会整体利益。最后,以深圳填海空间演变过程为鉴,其他沿海城市的空间发展应关注历史填海项目的生态修复与利益补偿和新增填海项目的经济与生态利益权衡。     

1980—2020年大湾区海岸线变迁及影响因素分析

海岸线动态变化是全球变化和人类活动共同的反映。本文基于粤港澳大湾区、东京湾和旧金山湾1980—2020年7期Landsat系列遥感影像及Google Earth高分辨率影像, 利用阈值分割, 结合水体指数法、Sobel算子法, 提取各期海岸线。从长度、空间形态、结构和利用程度等多角度分析其岸线变化, 并结合地理探测器对其影响因素进行定性和定量分析。结果显示: 1) 1980—2020年间, 各湾区岸线趋于平直, 其中东京湾海岸线的年均长度变化强度最大, 为0.37%; 2) 40a间各湾区岸线的纵深变化比较稳定, 结构趋于复杂, 形态趋于分散, 其中粤港澳大湾区海岸线的分维差异最小, 形态最分散; 3) 40a间, 各湾区的自然岸线减少, 港口码头岸线和其他人工岸线长度剧烈增长, 其中粤港澳大湾区的生物岸线波动增长, 岸线利用程度指数增幅最大。本文研究结果表明, 气温、波高、潮汐和陆域面积、港口吞吐量是湾区海岸线变化的主要影响因素, 且任意两个影响因素的交互作用大于单一因素的作用。     

从1980西安坐标系到2000国家大地坐标系的坐标变换

对1980西安坐标系和2000国家大地坐标系的转换关系,给出了应用CASIOfx-4800P计算器由平面直角坐标反解地理坐标的计算程序。应用这项程序,实现了从1980西安坐标系到2000国家大地坐标系的坐标变换。根据计算结果及其在1∶2.5万地形图上的图解精度,1∶2.5万~1∶50万地形图上同名点的坐标差异很小,都在图解精度0.2mm以内,所以地图改版时只需改变坐标系的名称即可。     

1980-2020年东海沿海城市水域系统时空变化特征及驱动机制

开展东海沿海城市水域系统时空分布特征及驱动机制研究,促进高强度开发下沿海城市的水资源保护和社会经济高质量发展。基于东海沿海城市1980-2020年8期土地利用数据,结合土地利用模型和景观格局指数分析水域系统时空变化,以地理探测器揭示各水域系统变化的驱动因素。结果表明：（1）河流、海涂、滩地面积趋于下降,而湖泊和水库坑塘面积趋于增长,其水库坑塘扩张最为明显,增长幅度达80.73%。（2）水域系统转换剧烈,河流、海涂和滩地面积转出大于转入,而湖泊和水库坑塘面积转出小于转入,不同年份转换特征具有差异性,但均呈现出海洋→海涂→其他地类（耕地、建设用地、水库坑塘等）的转换特征。（3）水域景观整体上趋于复杂化和破碎化,最大斑块指数（LPI）、边缘密度（ED）、连通度（COHESION）、聚集度（AI）、香农多样性指数（SHDI）、香农均匀度指数（SHEI）均趋于下降。不同水域系统的景观类型水平指数具有差异性。（4）自然因素奠定了水域系统分布的空间格局,而社会经济因素加速了水域系统发生转换。     

近22年来南沙海区的气温变化

运用南沙永署礁气象观测站1989—2010年的气温资料,对近22年来南沙海区的气温变化进行了分析,结果表明:近22年来南沙海区气温分两个阶段呈阶梯上升趋势,增长率为0.336℃/10年,升温幅度白天大于夜间。四季中秋季升温幅度最大,冬季升温幅度最小。2010年是近22年来南沙海区最暖的一年。     

Shipping casualties and loss of life in UK merchant shipping, UK second register and foreign flags used by UK shipping companies

UK shipping companies increasingly flagged out their ships from the 1970s to the late 1990s. This study used Lloyd's casualty records from 1970 to 2005 to investigate and compare shipping casualties and crew fatalities in UK shipping, UK second registers (Bermuda, Cayman Islands, Gibraltar, Hong Kong and the Isle of Man) and six foreign flags (Bahamas, Belize, Cyprus, Malta, St. Vincent and Vanuatu) used frequently by UK shipping companies. The study also assessed how 12 shipping factors may affect ships foundering and crew fatalities. Shipping casualty and crew fatality rates fell over time in UK shipping, in UK second registers and in older flags of conveniences, rather than in newer flags of convenience such as Belize and St. Vincent. Cargo, trade and weather most strongly affected ships foundering and crew fatalities. The findings indicate that shipping casualties and crew fatalities should be monitored in new and rapidly expanding flags of convenience.     

Long‐term spatial dynamics in vegetated seascapes: fragmentation and habitat loss in a human‐impacted subtropical lagoon

Vegetated coastal seascapes exhibit dynamic spatial patterning, some of which is directly linked to human coastal activities. Human activities (e.g. coastal development) have modified freshwater flow to marine environments, resulting in significant changes to submerged aquatic vegetation (SAV) communities. Yet, very little is known about the spatially complex process of SAV habitat loss and fragmentation that affects ecosystem function. Using habitat mapping from aerial photography spanning 71 years (1938–2009) for Biscayne Bay (Florida, USA), we quantify both SAV habitat loss and fragmentation using a novel fragmentation index. To understand the influence of water management practices on SAV seascapes, habitat loss and fragmentation were compared between nearshore and offshore locations, as well as locations adjacent to and distant from canals that transport freshwater into the marine environment. Habitat loss and fragmentation were significantly higher along the shoreline compared with offshore seascapes. Nearshore habitats experienced a net loss of 3.31% of the total SAV mapped (2.57 km²) over the time series. While areas adjacent to canals had significantly higher SAV cover, they still experienced wide fluctuations in cover and fragmentation over time. All sites exhibited higher fragmentation in 2009 compared with 1938, with four sites exhibiting high fragmentation levels between the 1990s and 2000s. We demonstrate that freshwater inputs into coastal bays modify the amount of SAV and the fragmentation dynamics of SAV habitats. Spatial changes are greater close to shore and canals, indicating that these coastal developments have transformative impacts on vegetated habitats, with undetermined consequences for the provisioning of ecosystem goods and services.     

2010—2020及影响因素分析年青岛海滩剖面稳定性

海滩的稳定性及其演变是砂质海滩研究的重要内容。在全球砂质海滩普遍遭受侵蚀的背景下,分析部分稳定海滩的特征和原因可以为海滩维护和科学管理提供重要参考。本文基于近 11 年 （2010—2020 年） 青岛第一、第三和石老人海水浴场共 8 条典型剖面的实地监测高程数据,对海滩滩肩宽度和单宽体积进行计算对比,研究表明,除石老人海水浴场一个剖面变化较大外,其他剖面的滩肩宽度只变化了 0~14 m,是 11 年前的 0%~23.3%;单宽体积变化了 8.5~46.5 m3,是 11 年前的1.0%~9.4%;海滩剖面垂向扰动范围一般在 30~60 cm 范围内。海滩存在局部小尺度淤积或侵蚀,剖面形态总体较为稳定。海平面变化、台风和风暴潮等自然因素是海岸轻微侵蚀或调整的重要影响因素,但对海滩的优化管理 （包括定期监测海滩、适度展开养护、制定完善的管理政策和加强执行力度等人为因素） 可以应对这些海滩变化,并且已成为近年来该研究海滩保持稳定的关键因素。     

Methyl halide production and loss rates in sea water from field incubation experiments

Experiments were conducted in the field to determine the non-chemical loss rate of methyl iodide in seawater and to examine production rates of methyl halides. The loss rate of added C13 labelled methyl iodide, present at concentrations similar to those found in seawater, corrected for chemical loss due to reaction with Cl⁻ varied from < 1 to 18% day^− 1, with a mean value of 7%. This rate of loss is much lower than that which was proposed by Bell et al. [Bell, N., Hsu, L., Jacob, D. J., Schultz, M. G., Blake, D. R., Butler, J. H., King, D. B., Lobert, J. M., Maier-Reimer, E., 2002. Methyl iodide: Atmospheric budget and use as a tracer of marine convection in global models, Journal of Geophysical Research-Atmospheres 107(D17), 4340-4351.] to account for the large discrepancies between observed and predicted mid-latitude concentrations of CH₃I based on their global photochemical source model. The suitability of several types of container for seawater incubations was studied and only quartz tubes appeared to be free of experimental artifact. Collapsible polyvinyl fluoride containers showed major production of methyl halides on irradiation with simulated sunlight. Polyethylene containers caused spurious production of methyl iodide at lower rates.     

Artificial radionuclides in the western Northwest Pacific (II):137Cs and239,240Pu inventories in water and sediment columns observed from 1980 to 1986

Concentrations and inventories of¹³⁷Cs and^239,240Pu were determined in sea waters and sediments columns from the western North Pacific from 1980 to 1986.The^239,240Pu/¹³⁷Cs activity ratio in the water column shows a tendency to increase from the surface (10^–3) to bottom waters (10^–1), but the ratio in sediment is within a rather narrow range (10^–2 to 10^–1), indicating more effective removal of plutonium from the water column than¹³⁷Cs. In regions south of 40N, the radionuclide inventories in the water column significantly exceed the estimated global fallout (stratospheric fallout due to the atmospheric nuclear explosion), especially in the case of^239,240Pu. These excess inventories imply that local or close-in fallout derived from nuclear explosions in the equatorial North Pacific are well-preserved and retained in the regions, despite about 20 years since the atmospheric nuclear explosion moratorium. Data suggesting lateral transport of¹³⁷Cs in surface water from north of 40N to southern regions is shown. Some data on⁹⁰Sr contents are also shown.     

Features of aerosol optical depth and its relation to extreme temperatures in China during 1980-2001

Based on Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer (TOMS) monthly aerosol optical thickness (AOT) measurements in 1980–2001 a study is made of space/time patterns and difference between land and sea of AOT 0.50 μm thick over China,which are put into correlation analysis with synchronous extreme temperature indices (warm/cold day and night).Results suggest that 1) the long-term mean AOT over China is characterized by typical geography,with pronounced land-sea contrast.And AOT has significant seasonality and its seaso...     

Adriatic seiche decay and energy loss to the Mediterranean

A salient feature of sea level records from the Adriatic Sea is the frequent occurrence of energetic seiches of period about 21 h. Once excited by a sudden wind event, such seiches often persist for days. They lose energy either to friction within the Adriatic, or by radiation through Otranto Strait into the Mediterranean.The free decay time of the dominant (lowest mode) seiche was determined from envelopes of handpassed sea level residuals from three locations (Bakar, Split and Dubrovnik) along the Croatian coast during twelve seiche episodes between 1963 and 1986 by taking into consideration only time intervals when the envelopes decreased exponentially in time, when the modelled effects of along-basin winds were smaller than the error of estimation of decay time from the envelopes and when across-basin winds were small. The free decay time thus obtained was 3.2±0.5 d. This value is consonant with the observed width of the spectral peak.The decay caused by both bottom friction and radiation was included in a one dimensional variable cross section shallow water model of the Adriatic. Bottom friction is parameterized by the coefficient k appearing in the linearized bottom stress term _ρ0u (where u is the along-basin velocity and ρ₀ the fluid density). The coefficient k is constrained by values obtained from linearization of the quadratic bottom stress law using estimates of near bottom currents associated with the seiche, with wind driven currents, with tides and with wind waves. Radiation is parameterized by the coefficient f appearing in the open strait boundary condition ζ =auh/c (where ζ is sea level, h is depth and c is phase speed). This parameterization of radiation provides results comparable to allowing the Adriatic to radiate into an unbounded half plane ocean. Repeated runs of the model delineate the dependence of model free seiche decay time on k and a, and these plus the estimates of k allow estimation of a.The principle conclusions of this work are as follows.

1. (1) Exponential decay of seiche amplitude with time does not necessarily guarantee that the observed decay is free of wind influence.

2. (2) Winds blowing across the Adriatic may be of comparable importance to winds blowing along the Adriatic in influencing apparent decay of seiches; across-basin winds are probably coupled to the longitudinal seiche on account of the strong along-basin variability of across-basin winds forced by Croatian coastal orography.

3. (3) The free decay time of the 21.2 h Adriatic seiche is 3.2±0.5 d.

4. (4) A one dimensional shallow water model of the seiche damped by bottom stress represented by Godin's (1988) approximation to the quadratic bottom friction law ρ₀C_Du|u| using the commonly accepted drag coefficient C_D = 0.0015 and quantitative estimates of bottom currents associated with wind driven currents, tides and wind waves, as well as with the seiche itself with no radiation gives a damping time of 9.46 d; radiation sufficient to give the observed damping time must then account for 66% of the energy loss per period. But independent estimates of bottom friction for Adriatic wind driven currents and inertial oscillations, as well as comparisons between quadratic law bottom stress and directly measured bottom stress, all suggest that the quadratic law with C_D=0.0015 substantially underestimates the bottom stress. Based on these studies, a more appropriate value of the drag coefficient is at least C_D=0. In this case, bottom friction with no radiation leads to a damping time of 4.73 d, radiation sufficient to give the observed damping time then accounts for 32% of the energy loss per period.

     

青岛城市坐标系转1980西安坐标系研究

坐标系统的统一是1个地区地理信息资源共享和标准统一的基础,目前,很多地区采用多个测量坐标系统,为实现测量坐标系统的统一,需要对不同坐标系的地理信息成果进行坐标转换。本文结合青岛市实际,对青岛市已有地理信息由原来采用的"青岛市城市坐标系"向国家统一的"1980西安坐标系"之间的转换精度和可靠性进行了探讨,通过具体数据的分析计算得出,2套坐标系之间转换切实可行,完全满足精度要求。