The precautionary principle and its approach to risk analysis and quarantine related to the trade of marine ornamental fishes in Brazil

The objective of this study was to employ the precautionary principle in import risk analysis (IRA) and quarantine in the trade of marine ornamental fishes (MOF). The analysis focused on the example of Brazil, as it imports and exports these fishes, in amounts that are globally significant. These processes, since their collection in nature, may expose the fish to stress, which may lead to the development of diseases. The legislation that regulates IRA and quarantine is derived from the Ministries of Agriculture, Livestock and Supply and Fisheries and Aquaculture. The quarantine of MOF in Brazil is not undertaken by government agencies, but by commercial establishments that are registered with the Ministries, and is way too short. According to the data obtained, the precautionary approach is not applied at all in this trade, as scientific information is not contemplated by the legislation, and law is not enforced.     

The tragedy of soft choices: capacity accumulation and lopsided allocation in the Norwegian coastal cod fishery

Following years of reduced cod stocks and the build up of capture capacity in the coastal fleet, the Norwegian government implemented “access closure” and “vessel quotas” at the end of the 1980s, in order to bring capture capacity under control. However, despite these rather powerful policy tools, the capacity of the Norwegian cod fishery continued to increase during the 1990s. This paper outlines the processes that led to this increase in capture capacity and to the accumulation of vessels in the large size segments of the coastal fleet, the exact opposite result of that intended by the introduction of the fisheries policy. We present two main factors to explain these trends: Firstly, the expansion in quota factors due to exchange or renewal of vessels. This provides vessel-owners with more “vessel-meters” which are equivalent to an increased share of total quota under the maximal quota regulations. This situation implies a redistribution of resources from smaller to larger vessels. Secondly, improved efficiency of technology aboard the vessels makes the vessels more efficient as capture machines. The effect of these changes remains hidden as long as the total stock increases, which was the situation from the introduction of the new regime and until the late 1990s. When the stock once again declined, the effect of the capacity build-up was exposed. A decade of soft choices, adjustments, and adaptations has used up the available solutions. New regulations and a new policy are now required.     

Answering Lord Perry's question: dissecting regulatory overfishing

In 1995, in response to the distressed condition of the British fishing industry, the House of Lords held a series of hearings on “Fish Stock Conservation and Management.” Lord Perry of Walton posed the straightforward question of why regulation was not succeeding:

If one takes all the management systems into account—TACs [total allowable catches, or annual quotas], number of days at sea and the decommissioning programme—none of them has stopped the gross over-fishing that has taken place. There seem to be three factors to account for it: first, the scientific advice that is given; secondly, how far that advice is accepted by politicians who set the TACs and quotas; and, thirdly, whether the fishermen obey the regulations. Which of these are the most at fault at the moment?

Lord Perry's question led us to ask to what degree publicly available information in the United States could shed light on the sources of overfishing in individual fisheries—what we will call “regulatory overfishing.” First, we set out a typology of the potential sources of regulatory overfishing. Next, we examine two case illustrations of federally managed, overfished fisheries in the United States. Each case generates important insights into the causes of regulatory overfishing and lessons for future management. In the final section of the paper, we make several suggestions aimed at improving fisheries management and the management process.     

An historical account of Brazilian public policy on fisheries subsidies

This paper presents a historical account of Brazilian public policy on fisheries subsidies, and a discussion of problems and limitations resulting from such policy. From the 1960s to the mid-1980s, public policies led to a great increase in fisheries catch without appropriate consideration for the long-term sustainability of the resources, resulting in declining catches over the years. The goals of current Brazilian public policy on fisheries will not help in reducing overexploitation. This is because these policies are too optimistic about the abundance of fish in Brazil's EEZ, and are not accompanied by a fisheries management plan that is likely to work.     

Discard management: A spatial multi-criteria approach

Discard management needs to draw on scientific research and advice, usually supported by specific statistical modeling analysis. A wide range of statistical analysis methods were applied to fishery data in an attempt to distinguish factors that influence the species discard composition. While such approaches are important, they are still incomplete for disaggregating the economic and spatial-temporal factors for analyzing of this process and obtain a whole view of this issue. Our study aims to fill this gap by identifying, describing, and quantifying factors that influence discards of trawl fisheries using a multivariate approach based on five complementary aspects: “economic”, “vessel characteristics”, “spatial”, “temporal” and “environmental”. In addition, a spatial multi-criteria approach were used to investigate discard hot-spot areas using ecological criteria such as vulnerability and resilience of the discarded species. Using these ecological criteria will concentrate conservation efforts on the most relevant sites minimizing discards of a variety of potentially vulnerable species. This approach was applied to a case study of a multi-species demersal bottom trawl fisheries in north Spain, Cantabrian Sea (ICES area VIIIc). Results showed how spatial and economic factors highly affect species discard composition, identifying specific spatial-temporal discard hot-spots to be preferentially avoided by fishers. Mitigation measures for future fisheries management strategies should be implemented at multiple stages of the discarding process, both in the selection of the fishing grounds and the economic valorization of the discarded species.     

“Quota-hopping” and the foreign ownership of UK fishing vessels

This article examines the evolution of foreign ownership in the UK fishing fleet in the context of policy developments at European and national levels. We argue that the characterisation of all foreign ownership as “quota-hopping” is misleading because it oversimplifies the means by which foreign access to fish quotas has been obtained. The paper considers the incentives for foreign ownership and the likely economic impact on the UK. It is concluded that the net impact may be rather small, but that the issue nevertheless raises questions for the allocation of fishing rights under the European Community's Common Fisheries Policy.     

Keeping the lead: How to strengthen shark conservation and management policies in Canada

Internationally, shark conservation is now being recognized as a major environmental challenge, but management efforts to halt the overexploitation of sharks have lagged behind. This review examines the state of knowledge for shark species in Canadian waters and analyzes the role of existing management and legislation in ensuring shark conservation. Despite Canada's early leadership, the present management framework reveals major shortcomings with regard to legal protection, bycatch and finning regulations. These problems are not unique to Canada but illustrate broader issues pertaining to the global management of endangered fish species. To strengthen the conservation and management of sharks, this paper recommends a set of key policies and management priorities, which exemplify proper precautionary management of endangered shark species in Canada and could serve as a blueprint for improving conservation efforts internationally. A structured approach for grading progress in shark conservation efforts against best practices is also presented and could be used as a goalpost elsewhere.     

The equity debate: distributional impacts of individual transferable quotas

The twin goals of economic efficiency and social equity often seem at odds, particularly in the debate over two marine policy approaches: firm-level regulation of inputs and outputs (“command and control”) and individual transferable quotas. This paper examines the debate over social equity in a US fishery that transitioned from command and control to individual transferable quotas—the mid-Atlantic clam fishery. The analysis draws on 17 years of data on fishing trips, vessel ownership, tradable property rights ownership, and output market shares. The results show that no segment of the industry was disproportionately adversely affected by the regulatory change; however, they also demonstrate the emergence of a new sector in the industry, which is predominantly made up of former small-scale harvesters.     

From low- to high-value fisheries: Is it possible to quantify the trade-off between management cost,risk and catch?

Fishery managers are faced with the challenge of maintaining sustainable fisheries at the lowest possible cost while conforming to international and national obligations. Given that fisheries range from low to high value, there is a real need to understand how to trade ecological and economic risks, and the various costs associated with their management, against the benefits from catch. Key to this is an understanding of (a) the costs corresponding to a given level of acceptable risk, or conversely, (b) the change in risk given a change in cost investment. This paper first defines biological, economic and ecosystem risk at a whole-of-fishery level, and then develops a simple model to quantify the trade-offs between risk, cost and catch. Using as case studies Australia's federally managed fisheries that range from data-rich to data-poor, risk was quantified for target species in terms of both their limit and target reference points (defined as “biological risk” and “economic risk”, respectively), and for ecosystems in terms of overall ecological impact (defined as “ecosystem risk”). A statistical linear model was used to quantify the risk–cost–catch frontier for each of the three forms of risk. The most parsimonious models were statistically significant for each. However, the management and research costs were mostly positively correlated with risk, indicating that these tended to be reactive to risk, as opposed to risk decreasing in response to increased costs. The only model where this was not the case was for the ecosystem risk, which is probably because these risks have only recently been assessed and the management response to these risks across all the fisheries has so far been limited. For target species risks, it was not possible to develop a model for proactive use. However, the method itself has merit and, if the costs were defined to a greater level of resolution, and/or a time-dynamic modelling approach considered, these issues could potentially be addressed.     

Illegal shark fishing in the Galápagos Marine Reserve

Illegal shark fishing is thought to occur globally, including within so-called “shark sanctuaries”, marine reserves and even inside UNESCO World Heritage sites, such as the Galápagos Islands. Presumably, this is due to poor local enforcement coupled with the growing international demand (and high economic incentives) for shark and other wildlife products. Understanding illegal shark fishing practices, and specifically catch composition, is important as poaching is identified as a causal factor of global declines in shark populations. Unfortunately, reliable quantitative data on illegal shark fishing are scarce. Here, the catch onboard an illegal shark fishing vessel seized within the borders of the Galápagos Marine Reserve was documented. A total of 379 sharks from seven shark species were found onboard the vessel. A large fraction of the illegal catch was comprised of both female and juvenile sharks (64% and 89%, respectively). Despite numerous recent advances in shark conservation worldwide, this study demonstrates illegal shark fishing is an ongoing concern and that stricter enforcement and legislation is urgently needed, particularly in areas of high biodiversity.     

The conservation of seals in Irish waters: How research informs policy

Ireland's waters represent a valuable resource encompassing productive fishing grounds and important oil and gas reserves. As a species rich marine environment, Ireland's waters are also an important habitat for many species of marine mammal. Specifically, grey seals (Halichoerus grypus) and harbour seals (Phoca vitulina) are widespread in Irish coastal waters and at least 24 species of cetacean have been reported at sea. The coastal zone represents critical habitat for many of these species, in particular seals that use both terrestrial and aquatic coastal habitat and are vulnerable to habitat degradation. Increasing exploitation of marine resources has increased their exposure to a range of anthropogenic effects including pollution and habitat loss. As top predators seals interact with commercial fisheries both directly and indirectly for resources and conflicts arise. The relatively recent move towards ‘greener’ resource exploitation such as marine renewable energy does not come without negative consequences for marine mammals including seals, which are afforded protection under national and international conservation legislation, highlighting the difficulties faced by resource managers. The sustainable exploitation of resources whilst conserving biodiversity is a challenging task and effective management implementation depends on appropriate policy informed by reliable scientific data. This paper outlines the conservation needs of seals in Irish waters, reviews our current knowledge of these species in Irish water, provides a critical analysis of the existing legislative framework and describes how research outputs can inform present and future policy decisions.     

Effective governance of a large and complex cross-jurisdictional marine protected area: Australia's Great Barrier Reef

Australia's Great Barrier Reef is the largest coral reef ecosystem on earth. The governance of such a large and iconic area is complex due to the overlapping federal and state (Queensland) jurisdictions. Since 1975 this globally significant area has been protected by pioneering federal legislation which enabled the ‘reasonable use’ of natural resources to co-exist with conservation, thus introducing the concept of a multiple-use marine park. In 1981 the Great Barrier Reef was listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Area. Today a federal multiple-use Marine Park covers 99% of the Great Barrier Reef Region and World Heritage Area, with the remaining areas under state jurisdiction. A close working partnership between the federal and state governments has evolved over 37 years and includes complementary legislation, joint field management and joint permits. In the face of increasing pressures, management of the Great Barrier Reef continues to be effective for a range of reasons, including a sound governance/legislative framework together with complementary federal/state legislation; integrated management with relevant federal and state agencies; and the application of ecosystem-based management principles both inside and outside the area of the marine park's jurisdiction. This integrated and comprehensive management model is widely regarded as effective by marine and coastal managers around the world.     

Marine aquarium trade in India: Challenges and opportunities for conservation and policy

The collection of marine taxa for the aquarium trade continues to demand live animals be extracted from reefs, but in doing so, offers economic benefits for local communities. To improve our understanding of the status of marine aquariumtrade in India, information on harvested species and their volume was gathered at the major collection hubs (Tuticorin, Kilakarai and Mandapam) in the Gulf of Mannar region, and compared to the export data. During one year, 87 species of fish (51% belonging to the family Pomacentridae) and 21 species of invertebrates were harvested for the trade. The conservation status of exploited species revealed that nearly 50% (n=43) have not been assessed for their extinction risk by the IUCN, while of the 44 species assessed, 41 were Least Concern (LC), and one each was in the Data Deficient (DD), Near Threatened (NT) and Endangered (EN) categories. While many fish were collected, only a few were exported from India. The sea anemones were the major export as they were of a higher value in the international markets, largely attributed to their color patterns. Price discrepancies within the trade value of marine fishes and invertebrates used for the aquarium trade indicated that price increased approximately 200% at each transition in the value chain (collectors to wholesalers, wholesalers to retailers). Management strategies and conservation plans for India's marine ornamental taxa subjected to exploitation are provided so as to ensure long-term sustainability of the coral reef ecosystems, as well as the livelihood that are dependent on them.     

由超微颗粒引导的某些自然科学研究的新进展

根据用途不同,超微颗粒通常定义为微米级或者纳米级颗粒.如同极高的活性一样,在科学和技术的发展中,超微颗粒同样具有很强的交叉和穿透能力.例如,超微颗粒制备技术已经带来了一系列科学新概念,如"机械方法学","超微颗粒断裂力学","机械合金化"和"机械化学",等等.在应用领域内,表面效应和小尺寸效应等课题吸引着越来越多的科技工作者.超微颗粒不但给工程技术,而且给科学本身带来了众多的机遇和挑战.因限于篇幅,作者只能给出一个概览.     

Brazil's recent agenda on the sea and the South Atlantic contemporary scenario

The goal of this article is to present Brazil's interests and concerns in the South Atlantic, through the analysis of the ongoing governmental plans to its adjacent sea, and the security and defense issues in the ocean region. First, it will introduce four important programs, namely the Proarquipelago, Protrindade, Leplac, and Proarea, launched by the country after the entry into force of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea. Then, it will discuss some of the domestic and international initiatives taken by Brazil to build a stable political and economic environment in the South Atlantic. Despite the peaceful purposes of the Brazilian agenda and policy to the sea, there are underlying reasons, such as keeping secure its oil and gas fields and consolidating its role as a major player in the ocean region, that must be considered as well. However, changes in the domestic scenario may provoke unprecedented modifications in this agenda.     

Will American consumers pay more for eco-friendly labeled canned tuna? Estimating US consumer demand for canned tuna varieties using scanner data

This study estimates consumer demand for eco-friendly labeled canned tuna products in two distinct US marketing channels, conventional and natural supermarkets, to evaluate market-based incentives for conservation measures that affect fishing costs and retail prices. Using retail scanner data, this paper finds that US consumer demand for canned tuna varies depending on the species of tuna, what gear type was used, whether the can is sold in natural food or conventional supermarkets, and whether canned product is or is not certified as eco-friendly. The paper's main conclusions are that retail price premiums for eco-friendly products face upper limits due to consumer responses to higher prices, and are most effective when coupled with: (1) inelastic own-price elasticity of demand; (2) price premium signals that are transmitted from retail markets to raw material producers; and (3) limited retail consumption substitution possibilities with lower-priced conventional products that help maintain price premiums and that otherwise create conservation disincentives by increasing conventional supply. Results from this paper not only have unique implications for various forms of international tuna fisheries policy that incorporates or anticipates change in market behavior, but also could serve as a scientific reference to clarify the trade disputes.     

Individual transferable quotas versus auctioned seasonal quotas: An experimental investigation

Fishery policies have largely developed in response to revealed problems with existing policy instruments. The last major innovation is the introduction of individual transferable quotas, ITQs. Experience thus far is promising. However, if history repeats itself, it is pertinent to start exploring further improvements. Among other things, concerns may be raised about the efficiency of ITQs, financial risks to owners of quotas and fishing vessels, and problems with fairness and collection of resource rent. These issues are studied with a laboratory experiment. Different from previous experiments it allows for trade of both quotas and vessels. In addition, the experiment tests an alternative institutional arrangement, namely auctioned seasonal quotas, ASQs. Neither of the two systems turns out to be as perfect as economic theory predicts. While the two systems are similar in some respects, the ASQ system allows for taxation of resource rent, and surprisingly, it may be the system with the lowest financial risk for fishing firms.     

Review of shark legislation in Canada as a conservation tool

Sharks are threatened from overfishing due to their life cycle biology, and unsustainably high catch rates to supply fins for shark fin soup. Canada, a leader in shark conservation uses numerous legislative tools to help conserve sharks. These tools include international treaty obligations under the Northeastern Atlantic Fisheries Organization [NAFO] and the International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tuna [ICCAT], as well as national and provincial legislation including the Fisheries Act, Pacific and Atlantic Fisheries Regulations, and Coastal Fisheries Protection Act. Through the use of these legislative tools Canada has successfully banned shark finning in its waters, and implemented closed seasons, gear restrictions, and species restrictions to help manage shark populations. However, Canada still allows the sale of shark fin products locally, and allows the exportation of shark fins internationally. In order for Canada to maintain its leadership status Canada must increase legislative protection of sharks by following international best practices, and ban the sale and exportation of shark fin products. This would ensure that Canada does not play a role in global supply or demand of shark fins. Doing so would strengthen Canada's position as a leader in shark conservation, and improve the legislation currently used as a conservation tool.     

Marine conservation science and governance in North–West Europe: Conservation planning and international law and policy

Member States of the European Union are increasingly designating marine protected areas (MPAs) to meet globally agreed marine protection targets and regional commitments. A number of studies have examined the impact of the associated European policy on the representation of species and habitats but there is no comprehensive review of their combined impact on marine conservation in Europe. Here a systematic conservation planning framework is used to conduct such a review and compare the existing legislation to three elements of best practice, which are designed to identify MPA networks that achieve conservation goals whilst increasing the likelihood of implementation. In particular, this review investigates the extent to which legislation: (i) translates broad policy goals into explicit targets; (ii) incorporates socio-economic data into the planning process; and (iii) requires a social assessment. Whilst this legislation has widespread political support and has underpinned the rapid expansion of MPA networks, this review shows it largely fails to incorporate these key components from systematic conservation planning. Therefore, if European approaches to marine conservation are to fulfil their goal of halting marine biodiversity loss, it is essential they link existing policy frameworks with transparent strategies that account for local conditions and support implementation.