Can citizen science contribute to the evidence-base that underpins marine policy?

Marine legislation is becoming ever more complex, so new cost-effective ways of obtaining and processing increasingly large data sets are required to support evidence-based policy making. Citizen science is one solution, but the uptake of the evidence generated by citizens among policy makers is often limited. Here, the importance of citizen science in delivery of the evidence-base that underpins marine policy was assessed using a series of case-studies. There was no consistent rationale for developing policy-relevant citizen science, but drivers included: lack of existing data, difficulty in collecting data by other means, the use of citizen science data by other organisations, and the capabilities of volunteers. Challenges to the uptake of marine citizen science were identified from policy-maker, scientist and citizen perspectives, and these related to data quality, data access, motivation of volunteers, and physical location. Citizen science has good potential to contribute to the evidence-base alongside traditional monitoring, remote sensing, and modelling, but only if outputs from citizen science projects are judged individually on quality. If this is the case, citizen science has an important role in delivery and understanding of future marine policy, but is only one part of an integrated solution.     

Global implementation of marine protected areas: Is the developing world being left behind?

While the global network of marine protected areas (MPAs) has recently been evaluated in the light of bio-geographic targets, there has been no attempt to evaluate the relative conservation efforts made by the different nations with regards to their level of socio-economic development. Using information mostly gathered from the world database on protected areas (WDPA), this paper gives a comparative assessment of MPA progress in countries from different economic categories, ranging from advanced economies to least developed countries (LDCs). Potentially explanatory socio-economic and environmental factors, such as fishing activity and existence of vulnerable marine ecosystems, for variability between nations in the level of MPA implementation are also explored. Existing MPA databases demonstrate a clear gap between developed and developing nations in MPA establishment, with advanced economies accounting for two thirds of the global MPA network. Patterns of MPA use, however, remain extremely heterogeneous between countries within each development group. International agreements on marine conservation, above and beyond the influence of country socio-economic and environmental profiles, are identified as a stimulating factor to MPA implementation. The level dependence on marine resource extraction appears to impede MPA implementation, though the relationship is not statistically significant due to large heterogeneity among countries. Leading developed nations increasingly use MPAs to designate integrated and adaptive management areas, and implementation of large “no-take” reserves in relatively-pristine overseas areas continues to accelerate. These analyses highlight certain limitations regarding our ability to assess the true conservation effectiveness of the existing global MPA network and the need for improved indicators of MPA restrictions and management efforts.     

STCW ’95: implementation issues: What is the pass mark?

By 1 August 1998 Regulation I/7 of the 1995 amendments to the International Convention on Standards of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping for Seafarers (1978) requires a comprehensive submission of information to the International Maritime Organization supporting an Administration’s claim that it complies fully with, or is in the process of implementing, STCW ’95 via policy and legislative processes. Once the complete information is received by the International Maritime Organization, the Secretary-General must submit a report to this effect to the Maritime Safety Committee. Three questions emerging from this controversial provision in STCW ’95 are:

• •When, if ever, is the information from an Administration complete?
• •What is the time frame allocated for confirmation by the IMO Secretariat?
• •How does IMO assess whether the claim by an Administration is valid?

The absolute nature of the phraseology within Regulation I/7, in the author’s view, handcuffs the certification verification process by ‘competent persons’. Equally unfortunately for Administrations, STCW is mute on establishing time frames for the processing of their submissions within IMO. Conceivably, a submission by a proponent aspiring for ‘white listing’ may be delayed sufficiently long for the Secretary-General’s report to miss the MSC regular meetings. What would be the impact of such a delay?Perhaps of greater importance though are two key issues linked to the third question. These issues lie at the heart of the amendments to STCW. Firstly, there is not an appeal or challenge mechanism to IMO’s decision; whether it is favourable or not. It is difficult to gauge at this time either the international shipping community’s reaction to an unfavourable report by IMO or an Administration’s position/policy to recognize a chastised Party’s submission. Secondly, the notion of ‘black- listing’ an Administration for sub-standard marine certification and training may not be sustainable under international jurisprudence. Advocates for IMO’s new role as a ‘watchdog’ of global marine certification and standardization organ for the United Nations would, no doubt, take a contra-position.This article attempts to illuminate the complexity of issues nested within Regulation I/7 of STCW ’95. Emerging controversy could strain international relations to such an extent that the high aspirations of the Convention’s drafters for marine certification transparency may not be realized.     

Lipstick and catch shares in the Western Pacific: Beyond evangelism in fisheries policy?

The push for catch shares is on in the United States, nationwide generally, and in the western Pacific specifically. The prevailing understanding of catch shares emphasizes individual private property rights and changes in fisher behavior are understood to result from changes in rights in accordance with a long-established canon in fisheries economics. It is argued that this orthodoxy misses the causal factor in catch shares and thus constricts the range of policy options for catch shares. Moreover, this standard understanding of catch shares fosters opposition. Opposition to catch shares in the western Pacific can be understood as a specific variant of a generic pattern of opposition that is often centered on concerns for distributional impacts. Blind to the fact that their own misunderstanding fuels opposition, proponents of privatization resort to explaining opposition in terms of a simple, but inaccurate, for-or-against-catch-shares dichotomy. Perpetuation of this dichotomy has become a tool in the promotion of one particular ideological conception of catch shares and is a disservice to the public policy process. A possible path forward in the context of the western Pacific is presented that is based on diminishing the role of outside policy experts while encouraging local design of programs to meet local goals. Such an approach is consistent with the nature of development as local people adopt and adapt outside influences on their own terms.     

What processes drive the ocean heat transport?

The ocean contributes to regulating the Earth’s climate through its ability to transport heat from the equator to the poles. In this study we use long simulations of an ocean model to investigate whether the heat transport is carried primarily by wind-driven gyres or whether it is dominated by deep circulations associated with abyssal mixing and high latitude convection. The heat transport is computed as a function of temperature classes. In the Pacific and Indian ocean, the bulk of the heat transport is associated with wind-driven gyres confined to the thermocline. In the Atlantic, the thermocline gyres account for only 40% of the total heat transport. The remaining 60% is associated with a circulation reaching down to cold waters below the thermocline. Using a series of sensitivity experiments, we show that this deep heat transport is primarily set by the strength and patterns of surface winds and only secondarily by diabatic processes at high latitudes in the North Atlantic. Abyssal mixing below 2000 m has hardly any impact on ocean heat transport. A major implication is that the role of the ocean in regulating Earth’s climate strongly depends on how surface winds change across different climates in both hemispheres at low and high latitudes.     

UK macroalgae aquaculture: What are the key environmental and licensing considerations?

Macroalgae has numerous commercial uses and the potential to create large carbon sinks. The study reviewed the legal context, including environmental and social aspects, for the setting up of a seaweed farm in the UK. A lease is required to use the seabed and a Marine Licence is required from the national regulator. There is no need for new legislation, however, the existing guidance should be updated. There is a major need to clarify what level of assessment is required as part of the marine licensing process. The environmental and social considerations to licensing were also reviewed. Changes to the hydrodynamics and sediment transport are expected in and around the farm. These may lead to changes in seabed siltation and light levels. The addition of hard substrate (from the anchors) and a macroalgae canopy lead to attraction of benthic animals, fish, marine mammals and birds. These, in addition to potential changes in organic matter and nutrients reaching the seabed from exudate and detritus, could create changes in existing benthic communities on the seafloor. No reason for major population-level impacts were seen. However, numerous knowledge gaps where identified. Scale appears to be an important consideration. A small farm on its own is unlikely to have a large effect on the marine environment. However, a very large farm, or multiple small farms next to each other could have a more notable effect. Knowledge gaps were identified and recommendations were provided that can assist the development of the UK macroalgae farming industry.     

Tradable permit programs: What are the lessons for the new Alaska halibut catch sharing plan?

To address long-standing allocation conflicts between the Pacific halibut commercial fishing sector and recreational charter (for-hire) sector in Alaska, an Alaska halibut catch sharing plan (CSP) is being implemented in 2014 that has a provision allowing the leasing of commercial individual fishing quota to recreational charter businesses. This one-way inter-sectoral trading allows for the charter sector to increase its share of the total allowable catch while compensating commercial fishermen. This type of catch shares program is novel in fisheries. In this paper, the literature on non-fisheries tradable permit programs (TPPs) that have similarities to the Alaska halibut CSP program is examined. Several successful TPPs are discussed, including ones from emissions trading programs, water quality trading programs, water markets, and transferable development rights programs. They are then evaluated in terms of their similarities and differences to the Alaska CSP program. Characteristics not part of the current CSP that other TPPs have used and that may increase the likelihood for the CSP to be effective in achieving its primary goals (if they are implemented) are identified, such as allowing more flexible transfers (e.g., internal transfers), intertemporal banking, cooperative structures, and multi-year leasing.     

What is the ecosystem approach for fisheries management?

The ecosystem approach for fisheries management is a widely accepted concept and various international instruments require its application. However, there are various interpretations of the ecosystem approach and its application almost always brings about confrontations and resistance among managers, proponents, and stakeholders. This paper categorizes the ecosystem approach into four distinguishable types: bycatch mitigation, multi-species management, protection of vulnerable ecosystems, and integrated approach. Furthermore, the lack of identification and understanding of specific management goals is hampering the application of the ecosystem approach. Unless the stakeholders understand and accept the goals, the ecosystem approach will not succeed.     

Marine conservation science and governance in North–West Europe: Conservation planning and international law and policy

Member States of the European Union are increasingly designating marine protected areas (MPAs) to meet globally agreed marine protection targets and regional commitments. A number of studies have examined the impact of the associated European policy on the representation of species and habitats but there is no comprehensive review of their combined impact on marine conservation in Europe. Here a systematic conservation planning framework is used to conduct such a review and compare the existing legislation to three elements of best practice, which are designed to identify MPA networks that achieve conservation goals whilst increasing the likelihood of implementation. In particular, this review investigates the extent to which legislation: (i) translates broad policy goals into explicit targets; (ii) incorporates socio-economic data into the planning process; and (iii) requires a social assessment. Whilst this legislation has widespread political support and has underpinned the rapid expansion of MPA networks, this review shows it largely fails to incorporate these key components from systematic conservation planning. Therefore, if European approaches to marine conservation are to fulfil their goal of halting marine biodiversity loss, it is essential they link existing policy frameworks with transparent strategies that account for local conditions and support implementation.     

Response to the article by Peter Harris: Fortress,safe haven or home? The Chagos MPA in political context

I welcome the contribution by Harris to the ongoing debates around the Chagos Islands. He presents the complex tangle of issues with some clarity and relative balance that is often absent from many contributions on this subject.However, marrying scientific and political issues as Harris sets out to do is less helpful in this instance than distinguishing between the two. Blurring these boundaries can risk the future of the Chagos Marine Preservation Area (MPA) and the invaluable protection it affords the many species (including important food species) now thriving in the Chagos Archipelago. CCT works to study and protect this unique environment, and we would like to make some important distinctions clear.     

ICZM Protocols to Regional Seas Conventions: What? Why? How?

The regionalisation of international environmental law has emerged as one of the most important legal trends of the last decades. However, the regulation of coastal management stood apart from this trend for a long time; indeed, while integrated coastal zone management (ICZM) projects have developed at all scales, legal regulation of ICZM has long been confined to the national and sub-national levels. This is not the case any longer: recent developments in ICZM implementation demonstrate an increasing interest in regional regulation through the adoption of specific protocols within regional seas frameworks. The article aims at taking stock of these recent initiatives, specially focusing on the Mediterranean and Western Indian Ocean (WIO) regions. It demonstrates that an ICZM Protocol can be a strategic lever to address coastal issues only if certain conditions for its elaboration and implementation are effectively met.     

Marine science and technology transfer: Can the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission advance governance of biodiversity beyond national jurisdiction?

Marine scientific research is crucial to forge solutions in the development of a new international legally binding instrument for the conservation and sustainable use of marine biological diversity in areas beyond national jurisdiction (ABNJ) under the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea . The transfer of marine technology, capacity development and marine genetic resources are key issues. This paper examines how the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC), as a competent international organisation for marine scientific research and technology transfer, can inform the development of the instrument. Synergies between marine technology transfer and non-monetary benefit sharing of genetic resources are illustrated. Four key lessons from the IOC are examined: 1. Coordinating international cooperation in marine scientific research; 2. Enabling open access to data and knowledge; 3. Facilitating capacity development through scientific training and education; and 4. Governance of marine scientific research. Realising the potential of the IOC to advance governance solutions for ABNJ will depend on increased political will from Member States and strengthened partnerships to reduce resource constraints and enhance the IOC's capacity at global and regional scales.     

The EU landing obligation and European small-scale fisheries: What are the odds for success?

A landing obligation was formally implemented in the European Union (EU) for the first time, as part of the recent reform of the EU Common Fisheries Policy (CFP). Given the reasonable success of the landing obligation in some countries such as the Faroe Islands, Iceland and Norway, this policy is seen as a viable approach to tackle the long-recognized discarding problem in EU waters. However, there has been some debate on whether there is sufficient evidence to support the feasibility of such a measure in the EU-CFP. The EU landing obligation will implicitly include all small-scale fisheries (SSF) provided the species captured are subject to catch limits or minimum sizes (in the case of the Mediterranean). SSF were included irrespective of the fact that the discarding problem in the EU has been historically associated with medium- to large-scale fleets (in particular largely mixed species trawl fisheries). Additionally, past experiences with a discard ban policy are still limited to specific countries and/or specific fisheries. This paper examined the appropriateness and feasibility of the recently implemented EU landing obligation in SSF. The effects in the long-term are unpredictable, but available evidence suggests that in the short to medium-term a landing obligation is likely to bring more negative social, economic and ecological impacts than benefits.     

To land or not to land: How do stakeholders perceive the zero discard policy in European small-scale fisheries?

The landing obligation recently adopted by the European Union's (EU) Common Fisheries Policy aims to eradicate discards in EU fisheries. The objective of this paper is to investigate the potential social and economic impacts of the discard ban in European small-scale fisheries (SSF) and the critical factors for its successful implementation. An exhaustive systematic literature review and a stakeholder consultation were carried out in order to (i) collect detailed information about current knowledge on discards in EU SSF and gauge stakeholder perceptions about potential impacts of the discard ban in European SSF, (ii) examine the capacity of the SSF industry to implement the discard ban, and (iii) explore the limits and feasibility of implementing such a measure.The results of this study show that little attention has been given by the scientific community to discards in EU SSF. Indeed, the systematic literature review shows that this problem is relatively unexplored in the EU. In addition, the effectiveness of a discard ban in industrial fisheries is still unclear, mainly because discard data are not systematically collected by fisheries authorities. Stakeholders mostly perceive that the new landing obligation was developed with industrial fisheries in mind and that compliance with the landing obligation in EU SSF will be difficult to achieve without high economic costs, such as those related to the handling and storage of unwanted fish on board.     

Whale-watching in Patagonia: What regulation scheme should be implemented when the socio-ecological system is changing?

Whale-watching began informally at Península Valdés in 1973. The activity primarily targeted southern right whales (Eubalaena australis). Since the early 1970s the number of people sailing out on whale-watching trips increased from several tourists a year to more than 100,000 in 2014. In this paper the fluctuations in the number of passengers, the biological changes and the socio-economic factors that influenced the development of the activity were reviewed. There are effectively four periods in the history of the development of whale-watching in Península Valdés. These periods correspond to international events, whilst some are related to domestic matters. The development of whale-watching regulations in relation to these events is also reviewed. Although the current whale-watching regulation scheme is appropriate, there are some aspects that could be improved by making the rules easier to be altered and modified, i.e., an adaptive management approach. As a case study the regulation prohibiting watching whale mothers with newborns, before August 31st every year, is examined, including the problems that boat operators face while attempting to comply with this regulation. Many of these problems arise due changes in the biological system (i.e. whale population growth).     

What factors affect the decision making process when setting TACs?: The case of Chilean fisheries

Although failures and successes in fisheries management are related to decision making processes, these are rarely analyzed in detail and even less often following quantitative or semi-quantitative approaches. Herein, we study the decision making process for Chile's most important fisheries using a binary decision model. This model evaluates the probability that an annual total allowable catch (TAC) will or will not be modified by the National Fisheries Council (NFC) based on biological, economic, and social factors. We also analyze some aspects of individual voting, particularly whether the members vote against or abstain from voting on the proposed TAC and if they prioritize resource conservation objectives. Our results indicate that the risk of over exploitation for many important stocks in Chile is aggravated by failures at the decision making level: the scientifically recommended TACs for those fisheries that generate higher levels of employment and have greater economic value are normally increased. This analysis shows that the NFC has clearly prioritized short-term economic and social objectives over resource conservation goals. We discuss the need to adjust the composition and functioning of the NFC in order to ensure long-term sustainability of the fisheries.     

Success in heading north?: South Korea's master plan for Arctic policy

South Korea's seven governmental ministries and agency jointly announced a “Master Plan for Arctic Policy” on December 10, 2013. This represents the state's first comprehensive Arctic policy document. This paper aims to analyze the Korean government's Master Plan from both the legal and policy perspectives, as well as to make constructive comments for its improvement. Environmental changes, the need for scientific research, growing economic optimism about the Arctic region, and political leadership have led South Korea to head north. These four factors form the basis for the Master Plan. This document outlines Korea's vision (to be a reliable and responsible partner in this polar region), three policy goals, four strategies, and thirty-one projects connected to the Arctic region. The formation of the Master Plan has been an opportunity for South Korea to organize and compile all the various Arctic activities independently conducted by governmental ministries and agency. In order to improve South Korea's Arctic policy since the Master Plan, the author recommends that the nation prioritize its projects according to its needs and the feasibility of each project. Prudence is required in the drafting and implementation of Arctic policy to respect Arctic states' sovereignties and sovereign rights over the Arctic areas. Finally, strengthening cooperation with the Arctic states and at Arctic forums is indispensable. In particular, bilateral cooperation is essential for South Korea to perform economic activities such as the exploration for oil and gas.     

Outside the law? Analyzing policy gaps in addressing fishers’ migration in East Africa

Coastal areas, and their small-scale fisheries, are important targets for both internal and transboundary migration partly because high mobility is an inherent feature of many artisanal fisheries livelihoods. As climatic changes are forecast to occur, environmental changes may trigger increased flows of migrant fishers. Policies that seek to promote development in ways that do not extensively degrade natural resources will thus have to deal with likely increases in flows of people across administrative boundaries. However, to date little attention has been directed at this issue and little is known about how policies related to coastal resources and development address these issues. This paper addresses this knowledge gap by analyzing policies and legal documents related to coastal resource management and development to examine the extent to which they recognize and integrate fishers' migration in their provisions. Migrant well-being and vulnerabilities are also addressed by examining the extent to which existing policies dealing with socio-economic development and environmental management address migrants and their needs. The analysis shows that policies related to governance of marine resources and coastal development lack an acknowledgment of fishers' migration issues and suggests that this signals an important gap in policy. The implications of this are discussed. The paper also highlights the fact that the invisibility of the issue in policy means that institutions developed to deal with coastal management at the community level may not have sufficient support from legal and policy documents, and may not be developed or equipped to handle the possible conflicts and difficult trade-offs that need to be addressed as a result of current and potentially increasing fishers’ mobility.