Guiding ecological principles for marine spatial planning

The declining health of marine ecosystems around the world is evidence that current piecemeal governance is inadequate to successfully support healthy coastal and ocean ecosystems and sustain human uses of the ocean. One proposed solution to this problem is ecosystem-based marine spatial planning (MSP), which is a process that informs the spatial distribution of activities in the ocean so that existing and emerging uses can be maintained, use conflicts reduced, and ecosystem health and services protected and sustained for future generations. Because a key goal of ecosystem-based MSP is to maintain the delivery of ecosystem services that humans want and need, it must be based on ecological principles that articulate the scientifically recognized attributes of healthy, functioning ecosystems. These principles should be incorporated into a decision-making framework with clearly defined targets for these ecological attributes. This paper identifies ecological principles for MSP based on a synthesis of previously suggested and/or operationalized principles, along with recommendations generated by a group of twenty ecologists and marine scientists with diverse backgrounds and perspectives on MSP. The proposed four main ecological principles to guide MSP—maintaining or restoring: native species diversity, habitat diversity and heterogeneity, key species, and connectivity—and two additional guidelines, the need to account for context and uncertainty, must be explicitly taken into account in the planning process. When applied in concert with social, economic, and governance principles, these ecological principles can inform the designation and siting of ocean uses and the management of activities in the ocean to maintain or restore healthy ecosystems, allow delivery of marine ecosystem services, and ensure sustainable economic and social benefits.     

Key elements and steps in the process of developing ecosystem-based marine spatial planning

Marine spatial planning (MSP) is an essential tool for delivering an Ecosystem Approach and should add value to existing management measures for the marine environment. It should be based on a clear set of principles with a sustainable development purpose. Developing MSP can draw selectively on extensive experiences in terrestrial land use planning. A nested approach with appropriate planning activity at different spatial scales is recommended. Defining appropriate management units is important and particular effort will be required where these do not align with ecosystem boundaries. The timeframe for plans is tending to increase from around 10 to 20+ years, but review periods are required which enable a balance between stability and relevance. This article focuses on the key steps in the planning process of developing ecosystem-based MSP. The importance of setting specific objectives, including as a context for the full range of relevant spatial data, and determining priorities is emphasised. It is also suggested that stakeholder engagement, including the way it is undertaken, is critical to different stages of the process.     

英格兰东部海洋空间规划及其对我国的启示

为促进我国海洋空间规划体系建设,文章采用案例研究法,分析英格兰东部海洋空间规划的制定过程、主要内容和实施现状,总结可供我国借鉴的相关经验。研究结果表明：海洋空间规划的范围应尽可能地与陆域空间规划相对接,以推进陆海统筹理念的落实;设立明确和清晰的海洋开发与保护总目标尤为重要,同时依靠政策、空间规划和海域使用许可制度,逐层将总目标予以细化和落实;公众和利益相关者的参与是海洋空间规划的必要环节,对规划的制定和实施发挥重要的促进作用;海洋空间规划是适应性管理过程,须开展持续性监测和评估,情境监测、过程监测和结果监测三者相结合的综合性监测和评估方式值得参考。     

Coming to the table: Early stakeholder engagement in marine spatial planning

From 2009 to 2011, marine spatial planning (MSP) rapidly gained visibility in the United States as a promising ocean management tool. A few small-scale planning efforts were completed in state waters, and the Obama Administration proposed a framework for large-scale regional MSP throughout the U.S. Exclusive Economic Zone. During that same time period, the authors engaged a variety of U.S ocean stakeholders in a series of dialogs with several goals: to share information about what MSP is or could be, to hear stakeholder views and concerns about MSP, and to foster better understanding between those who depend on ocean resources for their livelihood and ocean conservation advocates. The stakeholder meetings were supplemented with several rounds of in-depth interviews and a survey. Despite some predictable areas of conflict, project participants agreed on a number of issues related to stakeholder engagement in MSP: all felt strongly that government planners need to engage outsiders earlier, more often, more meaningfully, and through an open and transparent process. Equally important, the project affirmed the value of bringing unlike parties together at the earliest opportunity to learn, talk, and listen to others with whom they rarely engage.     

The integration of nature conservation into the marine spatial planning process

The understanding of the role of nature conservation (NC) is used to illustrate how an integrated and sustainable approach to decision-making could be developed for planning and managing activities in the marine environment. The need for NC to be integrated in the marine spatial planning (MSP) decision-making process is highlighted in various initiatives around the world. However none of these initiatives describes a commonly applicable framework to achieve this goal. The plethora of interpretations regarding the meaning, role and position of NC in planning, makes such an attempt more complex. A good starting point in order to develop such a process is to answer the question: how NC can contribute to the achievement of sustainability in the context of MSP? In the present study the different ways that NC has been interpreted over time are explored and several definitions are analyzed, concluding that there is currently no common approach to NC in MSP initiatives. Therefore it is indicated that NC should be treated as a means to achieve good environmental status of the ecosystem, based on its spatial, economic and conflict resolution dimensions, characteristics that are common among all marine uses. Consequently, it is proposed that NC at sea should be put in a central position during the MSP processes. A schematic presentation of the concept is provided in this paper.     

Evaluation of marine spatial planning

Evaluation is generally recognised as an essential step for learning and improvement in marine spatial planning (MSP). Practical guidance and experience relative to evaluation in MSP is, however, very limited. To address this gap, this paper addresses a set of issues relevant for evaluation design and performance: the object of evaluation is discussed in relation to the functions of planning, the choice of objectives and the timing of evaluation; factors affecting causality attribution are analysed, namely multi-causality of observed effects, counterfactual design, time lags and uncertainty; and possibilities and requirements regarding stakeholder involvement in evaluation are considered.Six models of planning evaluation are reviewed, based on which a step-wise framework for MSP evaluation is developed. Future research should pilot test and assess this framework and broaden the evidence base relative to impacts of marine management initiatives.     

How sustainable is sustainable marine spatial planning? Part II – The Portuguese experience

With one of Europe׳s largest exclusive economic zones, Portugal has a paramount role in the implementation of EU maritime policies. In the Portuguese context, ocean planning and management are presently undergoing major advances. This paper analyzes and discusses the present state of affairs regarding the Portuguese marine spatial planning (MSP) process, comprising: (1) an update on the status of MSP in Portugal; (2) an analysis on how sustainability concepts are to be implemented in the Portuguese MSP process and (3) a discussion on major challenges to Portuguese MSP long-term sustainability. The Portuguese MSP process can be divided in two phases: development of the “Plano de Ordenamento do Espaço Marítimo” (POEM) – initially intended to be the first Portuguese “marine spatial plan” but then published as a “study”; and development of the Law Proposal 133/XII on marine planning and management – soon to be approved. A key question for the long-term adequacy of Portuguese MSP is how is it addressing environmental sustainability: is it relying on soft or hard sustainability concepts? Is it prioritizing the achievement of good environmental status (GES) or blue growth? In both cases (POEM and Law Proposal), soft sustainability seems to be the underlying principle, because although the ecosystem approach is recognized as fundamental, environmental quality seems to come second when set against economic goals.     

Intended and unintended outcomes in fisheries learning exchanges: Lessons from Mexico and Madagascar

Fisheries learning exchanges (FLEs) bring together fisher communities to exchange knowledge and experiences, with the goal of building social capital and disseminating management techniques. In 2015 two groups of octopus fishers from Bahia de los Angeles, Mexico and Sarodrano, Madagascar travelled to Andavadoaka, southwest Madagascar to learn about the temporary fishing closures for octopus used in the region. Octopus fisheries in Madagascar and Mexico differ in several respects, particularly harvesting techniques. The FLE was qualitatively evaluated through participant observation and semi-structured key informant (KI) interviews. Thirty before-and-after interviews were carried out with 16 KIs including visitors, hosts and organisers. Informants suggested that holding the FLE at the same time as the closure openings allowed for learning benefits but carried an important opportunity cost for organisers and host participants, and that shortcomings of planning and translation capacity limited learning opportunities. Several KIs were concerned about the applicability of the Malagasy management model to the Mexican context concerned, and the FLE may have had unforeseen consequences since Malagasy fishers were excited to learn a new fishing method (trapping) from the visitors: if effective, trapping could negatively impact Malagasy octopus stocks. The exchange of knowledge in the FLE was primarily one-way, from host to visitor, and most organisers did not view themselves as participants. Recommendations to improve the effectiveness of future FLEs include: (i) improving facilitation and translation capacity to promote dialogue, (ii) focusing on key messages, (iii) selecting appropriate participants and (iv) recruiting a specialist to organise and lead exchanges.     

Marine spatial planning in the Middle East: Crossing the policy-planning divide

Many countries have begun marine spatial planning (MSP) efforts in the past decade and much academic and professional literature reviews and analyzes these processes. Relevant research that can contribute greatly to new efforts at MSP compares efforts, both recent and historical, with ideals set for spatial planning processes. This research addresses the extent to which paradigms from the planning practice and the policy field can be relevant for the MSP context. It does so by analyzing the interim products of an MSP process addressing the Mediterranean Sea area in the waters adjacent to the State of Israel. Results emphasize the potential contribution of public policy analysis and planning to critique outcomes of the MSP process with the aim of improving outcomes and devising best practices. This type of analysis can inform MSP as it becomes an accepted practice as a mainstream tool in the field of environmental planning. The complexity and challenge of spatial planning when policy foundations are minimal is highlighted in the results.     

Biogeographic assessments: A framework for information synthesis in marine spatial planning

This paper presents the Biogeographic Assessment Framework (BAF), a decision support process for marine spatial planning (MSP), developed through two decades of close collaborations between scientists and marine managers. Spatial planning is a considerable challenge for marine stewardship agencies because of the need to synthesize information on complex socio-ecological patterns across geographically broad spatial scales. This challenge is compounded by relatively short time-frames for implementation and limited financial and technological resources. To address this pragmatically, BAF provides a rapid, flexible and multi-disciplinary approach to integrate geospatial information into formats and visualization tools readily useable for spatial planning. Central to BAF is four sequential components: (1) Planning; (2) Data Evaluation; (3) Ecosystem Characterization; and (4) Management Applications. The framework has been applied to support the development of several marine spatial plans in the United States and Territories. This paper describes the structure of the BAF framework and the associated analytical techniques. Two management applications are provided to demonstrate the utility of BAF in supporting decision making in MSP.     

The role of stakeholders in the marine planning process—Stakeholder analysis within the Solent, United Kingdom

England is about to embark on the introduction of an integrated approach to the management of its marine environment, known as marine planning. The management of human activity in the marine environment is a central function of marine planning; therefore, stakeholder involvement will be crucial for the successful development and subsequent implementation of marine plans. The range of stakeholder activities, their connection to the marine environment and interest in its management are likely to vary considerably on a local, regional and national scale. It is realistic to assume that it will not be possible to involve every stakeholder all the time; therefore in order to develop efficient and effective stakeholder involvement during the marine planning process it is sensible to determine who to involve, when to involve them, and how to involve them from the outset. This paper discusses the role of stakeholders in the marine planning process through consideration of the results of a stakeholder analysis, which was informed by primary data collated from stakeholders within the Solent. The paper concludes with a proposed mechanism, comprising different organisational units, for managing stakeholder involvement in the marine planning process.     

The role of marine spatial planning in sea use management: The Belgian case

The expansion of offshore activities and the increasing need to meet international and national commitments to biodiversity conservation have led to an enhanced interest in marine spatial planning (MSP) as a tool for sea use management. Several European countries, on their own initiative or driven by European legislation and policy, have taken global leadership in implementing MSP. This article will discuss the Belgian experiences with MSP. It will give a short historical overview based on legal developments and review the implementation process of a ‘Master Plan’ as a spatial management policy for the Belgian Part of the North Sea. Additionally, this article will reflect on the research that has been done in Belgium to apply a land-use planning approach to the marine environment. The MSP process in Belgium shows that a spatial approach to sea use management is possible despite the lack of a legal zoning framework. However, it concludes that a legal basis for MSP, in addition to the current permit system, would provide a more strategic and integrated framework for ecosystem-based, sea use management.     

Decision support tools in marine spatial planning: Present applications,gaps and future perspectives

Evidence-based decision making is an essential process for sustainable, effective, and efficient marine spatial planning (MSP). In that sense, decision support tools (DSTs) could be considered to be the primary assistant of planners. Although there are many DSTs listed in tool databases, most of them are conceptual and not used in real MSP implementation. The main objective of this review is to: (i) characterize and analyse the present use of the DSTs in existing MSP implementation processes around the world, (ii) identify weaknesses and gaps of existing tools, and (iii) propose new functionalities both to improve their feasibility and to promote their application. In total, 34 DSTs have been identified in 28 different MSP initiatives with different levels of complexity, applicability and usage purposes. Main characteristics of the tools were transferred into a DST matrix. It was observed that limited functionality, tool stability, consideration of economic and social decision problems, ease of use, and tool costs could be considered as the main gaps of existing DSTs. Future developments are needed and should be in the direction of the specific need of marine planners and stakeholders. Results revealed that DST developments should consider both spatial and temporal dynamics of the ocean, and new tools should provide multi-functionality and integrity; meanwhile they should be easy to use and freely available. Hence, this research summarised current use, gaps, and expected development trends of DSTs and it concludes that there is still a big potential of DST developments to assist operational MSP processes.     

Rising to the integration ambitions of Marine Spatial Planning: Reflections from the Irish Sea

Marine Spatial Planning (MSP) is emerging as key tool in the delivery of more effective sea use management and the integration ambitions of MSP are central to its rise to prominence. This paper reviews three key strands of thinking (integrated coastal and ocean management; integrated water resource management; and terrestrial spatial planning) that are informing the development of MSP and sets out a framework encompassing different dimensions of integration that those engaged in MSP might find it helpful to consider. The paper then explores how this framework can inform MSP development and related activity by using it to structure reflections on experience in the Irish Sea. Here the paper draws upon the outputs of a project that was funded by the UK's Economic and Social Research Council concerning Transnational Partnership Working in Support of Marine Spatial Planning in the Irish Sea. The analysis highlights the integration strengths and weaknesses associated with the emerging MSP structures in the Irish Sea and areas where further attention may be beneficial. The paper concludes by reflecting upon the value of the integration framework proposed, how it could be developed, and on key issues that those engaged in MSP in other contexts might need to address in rising to the integration ambitions of MSP.     

Citizen science and the power of public participation in marine spatial planning

Marine spatial planning (MSP) is becoming increasingly used in the sustainable management of marine and coastal ecosystems. However, limitations on time and resources often restrict the data available for MSP and limit public engagement and participation in the MSP process. While citizen science is being increasingly used to provide fine-scale environmental data across large terrestrial planning areas, there has been little uptake in MSP to date. This paper demonstrates how consistent citizen observations can be used to identify hotspots of good and poor environmental health across a MSP region, and where environmental health has improved or degraded in the past five years; information that is difficult to obtain by other means. The study demonstrates how citizen science provides valuable insight into environmental health across a MSP region, while fostering a supportive space for the public to contribute their own observations and participate in the planning process.     

Exploring marine spatial planning education: Challenges in structuring transdisciplinarity

Marine Spatial Planning (MSP) has experienced vigorous growth on the international scale in recent years, and several practices has emerged from different countries. The demand for specific training in the preparation and implementation of marine planning has therefore already shown itself to be quite relevant on a global scale. Educational initiatives related to MSP have to respond to the increased complexity of MSP, which integrates environmental and economic perspectives on marine resources and maritime sectors, considering governance framework as well as maritime affairs and legislation.This paper aims at addressing the educational and training needs for the development of both academic education and professional training in MSP. Learning skills, contents and methods of an ‘ideal’ MSP course are depicted from widely accepted operative guides on MSP and from the EU Framework Directive on MSP (2014/89/EU). They are considered for the analysis of the current educational offer around MSP, performed in a sample of countries that have already undergone a process of implementation of MSP by Law. As result, beside the great variety of courses, it emerges that MSP education seems to be often regarded from an environmental perspective – in continuity with Integrated Coastal Management education – while planning theory and experiences in MSP are the least represented contents. Results are discussed in relation to three major challenges: i) how educational offer reflects on transdisciplinarity, ii) the role of theory in MSP courses, and iii) the enforceability of Plans as major concern in MSP.     

Marine spatial planning in Scotland. Levelling the playing field?

Marine spatial planning (MSP) is the leading tool for managing human activities at sea. It is designed to assist in decision making for marine resource access and use by considering the actions of those using the resources, interactions between these groups, and their cumulative impact on the natural environment. Being informed by ecosystem based management, MSP recognises that socio-natural systems are complex and that stakeholder and public input are key components of well-informed decision making. Therefore, MSP is rooted in the principles of good governance, including those of participation and transparency. This paper considers MSP processes in Scotland's inshore waters in the context of these good governance principles. The focus is on the institutional arrangements that allow stakeholders and the public to contribute to planning Scotland's seas and coasts. Whilst acknowledging the significant challenges faced by planners, and the work conducted so far, this research suggests that improvements could be made in how – and when – engagement takes place. It appears that at an early stage of introducing MSP in Scotland powerful stakeholders shaped the images, values and principles that guide it, and that including a broader range of actors early on might positively affect the legitimacy and acceptance of MSP in its later stages. The current institutional arrangements do not appear to allow for this. Ultimately, MSP in Scotland is in danger of institutionalising – and thus legitimising – existing power relations between marine resource users, and it does little to level the playing field.     

Spatially explicit economic assessment of cultural ecosystem services: Non-extractive recreational uses of the coastal environment related to marine biodiversity

The adoption of comprehensive marine spatial plans (MSP) requires that all aspects of value associated with marine biodiversity are considered in their development. Therefore, a holistic approach to MSP needs to include the ecological, social and economic aspects related to the range of goods and services provided by marine biodiversity. In temperate coastal areas however, extractive uses of marine biodiversity (i.e., fisheries) tend to receive more consideration than other non-extractive uses such as certain forms of recreation. This is primarily due to its economic and social importance and a lack of information on non-extractive uses of marine biodiversity. This study presents an assessment of the economic importance and spatial distribution of non-extractive uses of marine biodiversity (diving, kayaking, wildlife watching from boats and seabird watching) in the coastal temperate area of Wales and its application to MSP. The assessment of the economic importance and spatial distribution of these uses was ascertained through questionnaires with relevant users. Results indicated that the economic importance of non-extractive recreational uses of marine biodiversity in Wales is comparable to that of commercial fisheries for the same region. Spatially there was a significant degree of overlap among areas used by the different recreational groups studied here and the distribution of uses could be linked to different aspects of marine biodiversity, such as the presence of particular habitats in the case of divers. The integration of spatially explicit socioeconomic data for a range of different uses of marine biodiversity enables policy makers to gain useful insight into the potential consequences of implementing a spatial management regime, as certain uses can be sometimes overlooked but are still essential if we are to consider the impact of spatial planning on all economically relevant activities. Such data provide a balanced overview of the value of marine biodiversity to different sectors of society and contributes to the process of developing comprehensive marine spatial plans.     

NGO involvement in marine spatial planning: A way forward?

Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) are playing important roles in environmental conservation and management. Some are actively involved in the development and implementation of marine spatial planning (MSP), especially in Europe where this has been embodied within a European Directive. MSP is being used by many countries to sustainably manage coastal and marine areas, and reduce conflicts. However, recommendations regarding specific NGO roles within the MSP process are lacking. Consequently, to fill this gap and discuss a way forward, a session at the 5th Global Conference on Oceans, Coasts and Islands (GOF5) brought together MSP experts and NGO representatives. This paper reports the conclusions of these discussions and presents a summary guideline document for efficient and effective NGO MSP engagement.     

Marine spatial planning in the high seas

Although high seas resources are being exploited, reciprocal legal obligations to protect its environment have not been met. Marine spatial planning (MSP) is clearly a practical way forward, particularly for the high seas, where non-spatial monitoring is difficult, and where data gaps obstruct conventional management approaches. To ensure the effective application of MSP in the high seas, however, some institutional reforms are necessary. This paper outlines the main hurdles, summarizes existing high seas spatial protections, presents an example of a high seas marine protected area that resulted through MSP, identifies three institutional priorities, and suggests three immediate steps.