Geochemistry,water balance,and stable isotopes of a “clean” pit lake at an abandoned tungsten mine,Montana, USA

The Calvert Mine is a small tungsten-rich (scheelite) skarn deposit in a remote, mountainous region of southwest Montana, USA. The open-pit mine closed in the 1970s and subsequently flooded to form a pit lake that is roughly conical in shape, 30 m deep and 120 m in diameter, with no surface inlet or outlet. The lake is holomictic with a groundwater flow-through hydrology and an estimated residence time of 2.5–5 y. Water isotopes show that the lake is at an approximate steady state with respect to water balance and has experienced 30% evaporation. The lake has a near-neutral pH, exceptional clarity, and extremely low concentrations of nutrients, sulfate, and most metals, including tungsten. Manganese concentrations are slightly elevated and increase with depth towards the sediment–water interface. Despite seasonally anoxic conditions in the deep water, dissolved Fe concentrations are orders of magnitude lower than Mn, suggesting that insufficient organic carbon is present in the sediment of this oligotrophic lake to drive bacterial Fe reduction. Based on stable isotope fingerprinting, diffuse seepage that enters a nearby headwater stream at the base of a large waste-rock pile can be directly linked to the partially evaporated pit lake. However, this seepage has neutral pH and low metal concentrations, and poses no threats to the environment. Stable isotopes of dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) and dissolved oxygen (DO) are used to track the relative importance of photosynthesis and respiration with depth. In summer, a zone of high productivity exists near the base of the chemocline, releasing DO that is isotopically light. Respiration exceeds photosynthesis below the Secchi depth, which causes DO concentrations to approach zero towards the bottom of the lake. In winter, thick ice and snow cover prohibits photosynthesis. However, because of the low nutrient content, most of the volume of the lake remains oxic through the winter. Overall, the Calvert Lake is a good example of a pit lake formed from metal mining that has excellent water quality, which is a result of its favorable geology (paucity of sulfide minerals) and hydrology (flow-through lake with short residence time in a temperate climate).     

Legacy of the California Gold Rush: Environmental Geochemistry of Arsenic in the Southern Mother Lode Gold District

Gold mining activity in the Sierra Nevada foothills, both recently and during the California Gold Rush, has exposed arsenic-rich pyritic rocks to weathering and erosion. This study describes arsenic concentration and speciation in three hydrogeologic settings in the southern Mother Lode Gold District: mineralized outcrops and mine waste rock (overburden); mill tailings submerged in a water reservoir; and lake waters in this monomictic reservoir and in a monomictic lake developing within a recent open-pit mine. These environments are characterized by distinct modes of rock-water interaction that influence the local transport and fate of arsenic. Arsenic in outcrops and waste rock occurs in arsenian pyrite containing an average of 2 wt% arsenic. Arsenic is concentrated up to 1300 ppm in fine-grained, friable, iron-rich weathering products of the arsenian pyrite (goethite, jarosite, copiapite), which develop as efflorescences and crusts on weathering outcrops. Arsenic is sorbed as a bidentate complex on goethite, and substitutes for sulfate in jarosite.

Submerged mill tailings obtained by gravity core at Don Pedro Reservoir contain arsenic up to 300 ppm in coarse sand layers. Overlying surface muds have less arsenic in the solid fraction but higher concentrations in porewaters (up to 500 μg/L) than the sands. Fine quartz tailings also contain up to 3.5 ppm mercury related to the ore processing. The pH values in sediment porewaters range from 3.7 in buried gypsum-bearing sands and tailings to 7 in the overlying lake sediments. Reservoir waters immediately above the cores contain up to 3.5 μg/L arsenic; lake waters away from the submerged tailings typically contain less than 1 μg/L arsenic.

Dewatering during excavation of the Harvard open-pit mine produced a hydrologic cone of depression that has been recovering toward the pre-mining groundwater configuration since mining ended in 1994. Aqueous arsenic concentrations in the 80 m deep pit lake are up to 1000 μg/L. Redistribution of the arsenic occurs during summer stratification, with highest concentrations at middle depths. The total mass of arsenic in the pit lake increases coinciding with early winter rains that erode, partially dissolve, and transport arsenic-bearing salts into the pit lake.

Arsenic concentration, speciation, and distribution in the Sierra Nevada foothills depend on many factors, including the lithologic sources of arsenic, climatic influences on weathering of host minerals, and geochemical characteristics of waters with which source and secondary minerals react. Oxidation of arsenian pyrite to goethite, jarosite, and copiapite causes temporary attenuation of arsenic during summer, when these secondary minerals accumulate; subsequent rapid dissemination of arsenic into the aqueous environment is caused by annual winter storms. As the population of the Mother Lode area grows, it is increasingly important to consider these effects during planning and development of land and groundwater resources.     

Rare earth element fractionation during the precipitation and crystallisation of hydrous ferric oxides from anoxic lake water

An enrichment of light rare earth elements (LREE) is characteristic for most of the acidic, Fe- and SO₄-rich pit lakes and groundwaters in the lignite mining area of Lower Lusatia (Germany). One of these acidic lakes – the pit lake “RL 1223” – has a strong thermal and chemical stratification. The upper water layer (0–9 m) shows pH values of about 3 during all seasons. The monimolimnion (10–17 m) of the lake is anoxic and has pH values of about 7. The rare earth element (REE) patterns of the upper lake water show enriched LREE (La_N/Yb_N = 1.6) whereas the opposite patterns (depletion of LREE, La_N/Yb_N = 0.4) are found in the anoxic water of the monimolimnion. Experiments were conducted to observe the behaviour of REE during Fe oxidation in water from the monimolimnion (depth 14 m). The sampled monimolimnion water was placed in plastic bottles, and the changing water chemistry was observed for 40 weeks after sampling. Due to the initial anoxic conditions almost all Fe precipitated in the investigated water, and the pH value decreased from about 7 to 3 during the oxidation. The Fe precipitates are identified as ferrihydrite which is transformed into goethite within the oxidation process. Stable pH conditions (pH 3.0) were reached after about 10 weeks of oxidation.The original REE patterns of the investigated water are generally reflected in the Fe precipitates collected at the beginning of the experiment as well as after up to 40 weeks of oxidation. However, in the corresponding water LREE were temporally enriched with a maximum La_N/Yb_N ratio of 1.0 and a maximum La_N/Sm_N ratio of 2.3 after 6 weeks of oxidation time (pH 3.8–4.9). Although complex geochemical changes took place between the start and the end of the experiment REE patterns observed at these points in time are nearly identical. These differences of the REE pattern can be explained by the sampling procedure. The experimental findings can be transmitted to the mining dump aquifers of the study area where geochemical conditions comparable to the experimental oxidation time from 3 to 6 weeks are found and hydrous ferric oxides are precipitating. Groundwater passing through the mining dumps can preferentially desorb LREE from the Fe precipitates and display the typical LREE enrichment and carry it to the epilimnion of the acidic pit lakes in Lower Lusatia.     

Geochemical modeling approach to predicting arsenic concentrations in a mine pit lake

Between 1968 and 1983, the North pit at the Getchell Mine, Humboldt County, NV, filled with water to form a lake. In 1983, water quality data were collected with the following results: As concentrations of 0.29 to 0.59 mg/L, pH of 7.1 to 7.9, SO₄ concentrations of 1490 to 1640 mg/L, and TDS of 2394 to 2500 mg/L. Using geochemical modeling techniques presented here, pit lake waters have been theoretically allowed to react for 8.5 a, the approximate time that the North pit had been completely full by 1983. Modeling results predict pH of 7.9 to 8.2, SO₄ concentrations of 1503 to 1644 mg/L, TDS of 2054 to 2366 mg/L, and As concentrations ranging from 0.57 in the hypolimnion to 96 mg/L in the epilimnion. In the epilimnion, model results do not match observed As concentrations, suggesting that mechanisms, such as precipitation of arsenate salts or adsorption to mineral surfaces, may control As levels in an actual pit lake system. Adsorption to Fe oxyhydroxide surfaces is questioned by the authors because of the low Fe content in the Getchell system, but adsorption to Al(OH)₃ (gibbsite) and clay mineral surfaces may be important in controlling natural As concentrations.     

The roles of anoxia, H2S, and storm events in fish kills of dead-end canals of Delaware inland bays

In 2001, the development of seasonal anoxia was studied in two waterways located at the head of Delaware’s northern inland bay, Rehoboth Bay. Bald Eagle Creek is a northern tributary of the bay, which has tidal exchange with Torquay Canal (a dead-end canal) via a short channel with a 1.4 m sill. Mean low water depth in Torquay Canal is about 2 m, but dredging produced over a dozen depressions with a total water depth of 5.5 m. During the summer of 2000, four major fish kills were reported in Torquay Canal and Bald Eagle Creek with more than 2.5 million juvenile menhaden (Brevoortia tyrannus) killed. Low O₂ concentration was assumed to be the problem but production of toxic H₂S is more likely. From late spring 2001, we conducted in situ determination of temperature, salinity, pH, dissolved O₂, and H₂S in Torquay Canal and Bald Eagle Creek. During spring, water column stratification began in the depressions with warmer and less salty water observed in the upper layer, and cooler, saltier water below 2 m. O₂ was at saturation levels in the surface waters but was not detectable below 2 m by the end of May. The depressions were anoxic with H₂S accumulating to mM concentrations in June. A storm event prior to July 12 mixed these two layers with a subsequent loss of H₂S. The H₂S levels again increased in the deep water due to stratification and reached another maximum in late August. Another storm event occurred at this time resulting in no detectable O₂ and up to 400 μM H₂S in surface waters. H₂S appears to be the primary reason for fish kills in these tributaries. Aerators installed in Torquay Canal on June 21 had no significant effect on abating stratification and anoxic conditions beyond their immediate area.     

Studies of quaternary saline lakes—II. Isotopic and compositional changes during desiccation of the brines in Owens Lake,California, 1969–1971

Owens Lake is an alkaline salt lake in a closed basin in southeast California. It is normally nearly dry, but in early 1969, an abnormal runoff from the Sierra Nevada flooded it to a maximum depth of 2·4 m. By late summer of 1971, the lake was again nearly dry and the dissolved salts recrystallized. Changes in the chemistry, pH, and deuterium content were monitored during desiccation.During flooding, salts (mostly trona, halite, and burkeite) dissolved slowly from the lake floor. Their concentration in the lake waters increased as evaporation removed water and salts again crystallized, but winter temperatures caused precipitation of some salts and the following summer warming caused their solution, resulting in seasonal variations in the concentration patterns of some ions. The pH values (9·4–10·4) changed with time but showed no detectable diurnal pattern.The deuterium concentration increased during evaporation and appeared to be in equilibrium with vapor leaving the lake according to the Rayleigh equation. The effective α(D/H in liquid/D/H in vapor) decreased as salinity increased; the earliest measured value was 1·069 [as total dissolved solids (TDS) of lake waters changed from 136,200 to 250,400 mg/1]and the last value (calc.) was 1·025 (as TDS changed from 450,000 to 470,300 mg/1). Deuterium exchange with the atmosphere was apparently small except during late desiccation stages when the isotopic contrast became great. Eventually, atmospheric exchange, combined with decreasing α and lake size and increasing salinity, stopped further deuterium concentration in the lake. The maximum contrast between atmospheric vapor and lake deuterium contents was about 110%.     

Geochemistry and stable isotope composition of the Berkeley pit lake and surrounding mine waters,Butte, Montana

Samples of mine water from Butte, Montana were collected for paired geochemical and stable isotopic analysis. The samples included two sets of depth profiles from the acidic Berkeley pit lake, deep groundwater from several mine shafts in the adjacent flooded underground mine workings, and the acidic Horseshoe Bend Spring. Beginning in July-2000, the spring was a major surface water input into the Berkeley pit lake. Vertical trends in major ions and heavy metals in the pit lake show major changes across a chemocline at 10–20 m depth. The chemocline most likely represents the boundary between pre-2000 and post-2000 lake water, with lower salinity, modified Horseshoe Bend Spring water on top of higher salinity lake water below. Based on stable isotope results, the deep pit lake has lost approximately 12% of its initial water to evaporation, while the shallow lake is up to 25% evaporated. The stable isotopic composition of SO₄ in the pit lake is similar to that of Horseshoe Bend Spring, but differs markedly from SO₄ in the surrounding flooded mine shafts. The latter is heavier in both δ³⁴S and δ¹⁸O, which may be due to dissolution of hypogene SO₄ minerals (anhydrite, gypsum, barite) in the ore deposit. The isotopic and geochemical evidence suggests that much of the SO₄ and dissolved heavy metals in the deep Berkeley pit lake were generated in situ, either by leaching of soluble salts from the weathered pit walls as the lake waters rose, or by subaqueous oxidation of pyrite on the submerged mine walls by dissolved Fe(III). Laboratory experiments were performed to contrast the isotopic composition of SO₄ formed by aerobic leaching of weathered wallrock vs. SO₄ from anaerobic pyrite oxidation. The results suggest that both processes were likely important in the evolution of the Berkeley pit lake.     

Trace metal dynamics in a seasonally anoxic lake

Selected results are presented from a detailed 12-month study of trace metals in a seasonally anoxic lake. Dissolved concentrations of Fe, Mn, organic carbon, Cd, Cu, Pb, Zn, and pH were determined in the water column and the interstitial waters on 39 occasions. Trace metal concentrations remained low throughout the year in both water column and pore waters. There was evidence for some remobilization at the sediment-water interface but sediments deeper than 3 cm acted as a sink throughout the year. Variations in the water concentrations were largely associated with increased loading during periods of heavy rainfall. During the summer, concentrations of Cu and Zn in the waters overlying the sediments were enhanced by release from decomposing algal material. Similarly, enhanced concentrations of Cd, Cu, Pb, and Zn were observed during periods of much reduced mixing during ice-cover. Although there were large seasonal variations in the concentrations of dissolved and particulate Fe and Mn, there were no comparable changes in the concentrations of trace metals.     

Photoreduction of Fe(III) in the Acidic Mine Pit Lake of San Telmo (Iberian Pyrite Belt): Field and Experimental Work

Light-induced reduction of dissolved and particulate Fe(III) has been observed to occur in the surface waters of the acidic mine pit lake of San Telmo (143,600 m², pH 2.8, Fe_total = 2.72 mM). This photochemical production of Fe(II) is directly related to the intensity of solar radiation and competes with biologically catalyzed reactions (i.e., bacterial re-oxidation of Fe(II)) and physical processes (including ionic diffusion, advection, and convection, which tend to homogenize the epilimnetic concentration of Fe(II) at every moment). Therefore, diel cycles of Fe(II) concentration are observed at the lake surface, with minimum values of 10–20 μM Fe(II) (0.35–0.70% Fe_total) at the sunrise and sunset, and maximum values of 90 μM Fe(II) (3.2% Fe_total) at midday in August 2005. Field and experimental work conducted in San Telmo and other pit lakes of the Iberian Pyrite Belt (IPB) (pH 2.3–3.1, Fe_total = 0.34–17 mM) indicate that the kinetics of the photoreductive reaction is zero-order and is independent of the Fe(III) concentration, but highly dependent on the intensity of solar radiation and temperature. Experimental work conducted with natural Fe(III) minerals (schwertmannite, goethite, and lepidocrocite) suggests that dissolved organic matter is an important factor contributing to the photochemical production of Fe(II). The wavelengths involved in the photoreduction of Fe(III) include not only the spectrum of UV-A radiation (315–400 nm), but also part of the photosynthetically active radiation (PAR, 400–700 nm). This finding is of prime importance for the understanding of the photoreduction processes in the pit lakes of the IPB, because the photo-reactive depth is not limited to the penetration depth of UV-A radiation (upper 1–10 cm of the water column depending on the TDS content), but it is approximately equal to the penetration depth of PAR (e.g., first 4–6 m of the water column in San Telmo on July 2007); thus, increasing the importance of photochemical processes in the hydro(bio)geochemistry of pit lakes.     

Nitrate sources and sinks in Elkhorn Slough,California: Results from long-term continuous in situ nitrate analyzers

Nitrate and water quality parameters (temperature, salinity, dissolved oxygen, turbidity, and depth) were measured continuously with in situ NO₃ analyzers and water quality sondes at two sites in Elkhorn Slough in Central California. The Main Channel site near the mouth of Elkhorn Slough was sampled from February to September 2001. Azevedo Pond, a shallow tidal pond bordering agricultural fields further inland, was sampled from December 1999 to July 2001. Nitrate concentrations were recorded hourly while salinity, temperature, depth, oxygen, and turbidity were recorded every 30 min. Nitrate concentrations at the Main Channel site ranged from 5 to 65 μM. The propagation of an internal wave carrying water from ≈100 m depth up the Monterey Submarine Canyon and into the lower section of Elkhorn Slough on every rising tide was a major source of nitrate, accounting for 80–90% of the nitrogen load during the dry summer period. Nitrate concentrations in Azevedo Pond ranged from 0–20 μM during the dry summer months. Nitrate in Azevedo Pond increased to over 450 μM during a heavy winter precipitation event, and interannual variability driven by differences in precipitation was observed. At both sites, tidal cycling was the dominant forcing, often changing nitrate concentrations by 5-fold or more within a few hours. Water volume flux estimates were combined with observed nitrate concentrations to obtain nitrate fluxes. Nitrate flux calculations indicated a loss of 4 mmol NO₃ m^?2 d^?1 for the entire Elkhorn Slough and 1 mmol NO₃ m^?2 d^?1 at Azevedo Pond. These results suggested that the waters of Elkhorn Slough were not a major source of nitrate to Monterey Bay but actually a nitrate sink during the dry season. The limited winter data at the Main Channel site suggest that nitrate was exported from Elkhorn Slough during the wet season. Export of ammonium or dissolved organic nitrogen, which we did not monitor, may balance some or all of the NO₃ flux.     

Water chemistry and sedimentological observations in littlefield lake,michigan: Implications for lacustrine marl deposition

A combination of both water chemistry and sedimentological information was used to investigate the carbonate-producing mechanism in Littlefield Lake, a small lake located in Isabella County, central Michigan. Data on temperature, dissolved oxygen, pH, calcium carbonate (CaCO₃) saturation, alkalinity, calcium, and magnesium were obtained on a monthly basis over a 13-month period, with each parameter determined at 1m intervals over a depth range of 20m. The loss of dissolved carbon dioxide (CO₂) from warm surface waters during direct degassing, and to a lesser extent during photosynthetic uptake by lacustrine macrophytes and phytoplankton during the summer, results in massive precipitation of the low-magnesium calcite which predominates in all Littlefield Lake sedimentary facies However, despite the fact that carbonate precipitation in this rather typical temperate-region marl lake is directly related to, and may be driven by, seasonal variation in these physiochemical parameters, most calcite forms as encrustations around cyanophytic and chlorophytic macrophytes. Such relationships demonstrate that carbonate precipitation in marl lakes may result from complex interactions between both biochemical and physiochemical processes. As such, marl formation in this, and probably many other calcareous lake systems, can not be simply ascribed to one or the other of these two general mechanisms.     

Seasonal changes of fulvic acid,Ca and Mg concentrations of water samples collected above and in the Béke Cave of the Aggtelek karst system (Hungary)

Magnesium and Ca concentration ratios, fulvic acid content, total dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) and pH were determined in seepage water and drip water samples collected during one seasonal cycle between June 2000 and May 2001 above and in the Béke Cave of Aggtelek (Hungary). Seepage water samples were collected at 0.5 and 7 m below ground level from an observation point situated above the cave. Drip water was collected 40 m underground from a group of stalactites. The fulvic acid concentrations were determined by fluorescence spectrometry after pre-concentration on a XAD-8 chromatographic column. Calcium and Mg concentrations were measured by inductively coupled plasma atomic-emission spectrometry. DIC was determined with a CO₂ – selective electrode. DIC values increased and the fulvic acid concentrations and Mg and Ca concentration ratios, generally, decreased with depth. The highest flux of fulvic acid was observed in spring. The fulvic acid flux increased by a factor of 2.6–3.6 and 1.4 for groundwater and drip water, respectively, compared with those registered in the winter samples. The variations in the Ca, Mg and fulvic acid concentrations of the seepage and drip water samples relate to the variable drip rate. The results revealed that there is a strong correlation between the daily average surface temperature, daily amount of precipitation and drip water rate registered in the cave.     

Detailed geochemical studies of a He-U lake anomaly in permafrost, Baker Lake Area, N.W.T.

A strong He-U anomaly, discovered in the Thelon basin of the N.W.T. during a regional U exploration program in 1981, was studied in detail in 1982. The anomaly is confined to a 3-km² lake situated 160 km northwest of Baker Lake. Lake bottom water and sediment samples taken in June through the ice on a 50 m × 50 m grid, were analyzed for a number of trace and minor elements.In the lake sediments He and U were highly anomalous and parallel the strong anomaly patterns of He observed in the water. Median and maximum values in the sediments were 57 ppm and 396 ppm U, and 296 nL/L and 13870 nL/L He. Regional medians were 4.3 ppm U and 50 nL/L He. Se and V in sediments gave weak but similar anomaly patterns to those observed for U and He.The anomaly is somewhat of an enigma. The unusually high U content indicates an oxidizing, hence, near surface, water regime, and the highly anomalous He flux into the lake and a thick cover of permafrost in the region indicate a very deep source where conditions are normally reducing, rendering U immobile.Coincident anomaly patterns and increasing concentrations with depth of minor and trace elements and gases in the lake water prove that groundwater is the source of the anomalies. Contoured element maps indicate that this groundwater enters the lake in at least four places.The fact that up to 35 ppb U, 6 ppm dissolved O₂ and virtually no Fe and Mn, were detected in lake waters above groundwater entry points indicates that the groundwaters were oxidizing with respect to these elements. This is indeed surprising because permafrost is believed to be about 300 m thick in the region; at such depths groundwaters are usually rich in Fe and void of U.The highly anomalous He in this lake indicates deep fractures which serve as conduits for mineralized water entering the lake from depth and creating a frost-free window in the permafrost. The fractures probably penetrate well into the basement for only major deep fractures are known to produce such strong He anomalies. The additional presence of anomalous U suggests U mineralization at depth.     

Geochemistry of highly acidic mine water following disposal into a natural lake with carbonate bedrock

Acid mine drainage (AMD) from the Zn–Pb(–Ag–Bi–Cu) deposit of Cerro de Pasco (Central Peru) and waste water from a Cu-extraction plant has been discharged since 1981 into Lake Yanamate, a natural lake with carbonate bedrock. The lake has developed a highly acidic pH of ∼1. Mean lake water chemistry was characterized by 16,775 mg/L acidity as CaCO₃, 4330 mg/L Fe and 29,250 mg/L SO₄. Mean trace element concentrations were 86.8 mg/L Cu, 493 mg/L Zn, 2.9 mg/L Pb and 48 mg/L As, which did not differ greatly from the discharged AMD. Most elements showed increasing concentrations from the surface to the lake bottom at a maximal depth of 41 m (e.g. from 3581 to 5433 mg/L Fe and 25,609 to 35,959 mg/L SO₄). The variations in the H and O isotope compositions and the element concentrations within the upper 10 m of the water column suggest mixing with recently discharged AMD, shallow groundwater and precipitation waters. Below 15 m a stagnant zone had developed. Gypsum (saturation index, SI ∼ 0.25) and anglesite (SI ∼ 0.1) were in equilibrium with lake water. Jarosite was oversaturated (SI ∼ 1.7) in the upper part of the water column, resulting in downward settling and re-dissolution in the lower part of the water column (SI ∼ −0.7). Accordingly, jarosite was only found in sediments from less than 7 m water depth. At the lake bottom, a layer of gel-like material (∼90 wt.% water) of pH ∼1 with a total organic C content of up to 4.40 wet wt.% originated from the kerosene discharge of the Cu-extraction plant and had contaminant element concentrations similar to the lake water. Below the organic layer followed a layer of gypsum with pH 1.5, which overlaid the dissolving carbonate sediments of pH 5.3–7. In these two layers the contaminant elements were enriched compared to lake water in the sequence As < Pb ≈ Cu < Cd < Zn = Mn with increasing depth. This sequence of enrichment was explained by the following processes: (i) adsorption of As on Fe-hydroxides coating plant roots at low pH (up to 3326 mg/kg As), (ii) adsorption at increasing pH near the gypsum/calcite boundary (up to 1812 mg/kg Pb, 2531 mg/kg Cu, and 36 mg/kg Cd), and (iii) precipitation of carbonates (up to 5177 mg/kg Zn and 810 mg/kg Mn; all data corrected to a wet base). The infiltration rate was approximately equal to the discharge rate, thus gypsum and hydroxide precipitation had not resulted in complete clogging of the lake bedrocks.     

Gas buildup in Lake Nyos,Cameroon: The recharge process and its consequences

The gases dissolved in Lake Nyos, Cameroon, were quantified recently (December 1989 and September 1990) by two independent techniques: in-situ measurements using a newly designed probe and laboratory analyses of samples collected in pre-evacuated stainless steel cylinders. The highest concentrations of CO₂ and CH₄ were 0.30 mol/kg and 1.7 mmol/kg, respectively, measured in cylinders collected 1 m above lake bottom. Probe measurements of in-situ gas pressure at three different stations showed that horizontal variations in total dissolved gas were negligible. Total dissolved-gas pressure near the lake bottom is 1.06 MPa (10.5 atm), 50% as high as the hydrostatic pressure of 2.1 MPa (21 atm). Comparing the CO₂ profile constructed from the 1990 data to one obtained in May 1987 shows that CO₂ concentrations have increased at depths to below 150 m. Based on these profiles, the average rate of CO₂ input to bottom waters was 2.6 × 10⁸ mol/a. Increased deep-water temperatures require an average heat flow of 0.32 MW into the hypolimnion over the same time period. The transport rates of CO₂, heat, and major ions into the hypolimnion suggest that a low-temperature reservoir of free CO₂ exists a short distance below lake bottom and that convective cycling of lake water through the sediments is involved in transporting the CO₂ into the lake from the underlying diatreme. Increased CH₄ concentrations at all depths below the oxycline and a high¹⁴C content (41% modern) in the CH₄ 4 m above lake bottom show that much of the CH₄ is biologically produced within the lake. The CH₄ production rate may vary with time, but if the CO₂ recharge rate remains constant, CO₂ saturation of the entire hypolimnion below 50 m depth would require ∼140a, given present-day concentrations.     

Geochemical and equilibrium trends in mine pit lakes

Chemical composition and equilibrium trends in mine pit lakes were examined to provide guidance for the application of geochemical models in predicting future lake water quality at prospective open pit mines. Composition trends show that elevated solute levels generally occur only at the extremes of acidic and alkaline pH conditions. Concentrations of cationic metals (Al, Cd, Cu, Fe, Mn, Pb, and Zn) are elevated only in acidic pit lakes, whereas anionic metalloids (As and Se) are generally elevated only in alkaline pit lakes. These trends are indicative of sulfide mineral oxidation and evapoconcentration for acidic and alkaline conditions, respectively.For nearly all pit lakes, SO₄ is the dominant solute, but is limited by gypsum solubility. Fluorite, calcite, and barite are also important solubility controls. Well-defined solubility controls exist for the major metals (Al, Fe, Mn), including jurbanite and alunite for Al, ferrihydrite for Fe, and manganite, birnessite, and, possibly, rhodochrosite for Mn. Determinations of definite controls for the minor metals are less distinct, but may include otavite for Cd, brochantite and malachite for Cu, cerrusite and pyromorphite for Pb, and hydrozincite and Zn silicates for Zn. Concentrations of As and Se appear to be limited only by adsorption, but this control is sharply diminished by increased pH and SO₄ concentration. In general, the concentrations of minor metals in pit lakes are not well represented by the theoretical solubilities of pure-phase minerals contained in the thermodynamic databases. Hence, modeling efforts will generally have to rely on empirical data on the leaching characteristics of pit wall-rocks to predict the concentrations of minor metals (Cd, Cu, Pb, Zn) in mine pit lakes.Methodologies for predicting pit lake water chemistry are still evolving. Geochemical and equilibrium trends in existing pit lakes can provide valuable information for guiding the development and application of predictive models. However, mineralogical studies of pit lake sediments, suspended particles, and alteration assemblages and studies of redox transformations are still needed to validate and refine the representations of geochemical processes in water quality models of mine pit lakes.     

Mercury transformations and fluxes in sediments of a riverine wetland

Porewater samples were obtained on five occasions during spring, summer and fall by in situ dialysis from three sites of a large freshwater wetland situated along the St. Lawrence River. These samples were analysed for total dissolved mercury ([Hg]_T) and methylmercury ([MeHg]) concentrations and for complementary variables including dissolved sulfate, sulfide and elemental sulfur concentrations. Sediment cores were obtained on three occasions from one of these sites for the determination of total mercury ({Hg}_T) and methylmercury ({MeHg}) concentration as well as mercury methyltransferase (HgMT) activity profiles. {MeHg} and HgMT activity varied with time and sediment depth. The porewater [Hg]_T and [MeHg] depth profiles varied with time and among sites. Modeling the porewater [MeHg] profiles with a one-dimensional reaction-transport equation allowed identification of the sediment depths where MeHg is produced or consumed, as well as an estimate of the net in situ MeHg production rates in the sediments. The model-predicted depths of MeHg production, as well as the sulfate concentration and the HgMT activity depth distributions are all consistent with the involvement of sulfate reducing bacteria in the production of MeHg.     

Environmental history of southern Patagonia unravelled by the seismic stratigraphy of Laguna Potrok Aike

Laguna Potrok Aike, located in southernmost Patagonia (Argentina, 52°S) is a 100 m deep hydrologically closed lake that probably provides the only continental southern Patagonian archive covering a long and continuous interval of several glacial to interglacial cycles. In the context of the planned ‘International Continental Scientific Drilling Program’ initiative ‘Potrok Aike Maar Lake Sediment Archive Drilling Project’, several seismic site surveys that characterize in detail the sedimentary subsurface of the lake have been undertaken. Long sediment cores recovered the material to date and calibrate these seismic data. Laguna Potrok Aike is rimmed steeply, circular in shape with a diameter of ∼3·5 km and is surrounded by a series of subaerial palaeoshorelines, reflecting varying lake-level highstands and lowstands. Seismic data indicate a basinwide erosional unconformity that occurs consistently on the shoulder of the lake down to a depth of −33 m (below 2003 ad lake level), marking the lowest lake level during Late Glacial to Holocene times. Cores that penetrate this unconformity comprise Marine Isotope Stage 3-dated sediments (45 kyr bp ) ∼3·5 m below, and post-6800 cal yr bp transgressional sediments above the unconformity. This Middle Holocene transgression following an unprecedented lake-level lowstand marks the onset of a stepwise change in moisture, as shown by a series of up to 11 buried palaeoshorelines that were formed during lake-level stillstands at depths between −30 and −12 m. Two series of regressive shorelines between ∼5800 to 5400 and ∼4700 to 4000 cal yr bp interrupt the overall transgressional trend. In the basin, mound-like drift sediments occur after ∼6000 cal yr bp, documenting the onset of lake currents triggered by a latitudinal shift or an increase in wind intensity of the Southern Hemispheric Westerlies over Laguna Potrok Aike at that time. Furthermore, several well-defined lateral slides can be recognized. The majority of these slides occurred during the mid-Holocene lake-level lowering when the slopes became rapidly sediment-charged because of erosion from the exposed shoulder sediments. Around 7800 and 4900 cal yr bp , several slides went down simultaneously, probably triggered by seismic shaking.     

我国季风边缘区湖泊沉积记录的全新世亚洲夏季风衰退事件

亚洲夏季风是全球季风系统的重要组成部分,亚洲夏季风的变化对其控制区域自然生态系统的多样性和生态平衡,以及社会经济发展有重要的影响。本文选择位于现代亚洲夏季风边缘区对季风变化响应敏感的湖泊达连海为研究对象,基于陆生植物残体和全有机质的AMS14C定年建立了钻孔顶部24.6 m沉积物的年代框架,利用粒度指标重建了全新世研究区水文变化过程以及亚洲夏季风衰退事件序列。结果显示,沉积物中存在数层砂层,代表了湖泊低水位时期,进而指示了亚洲夏季风衰退事件。这些事件处在11.6~11.3 cal.ka B.P.、10.4~9.5 cal.ka B.P.、6.4~6.0 cal.ka B.P.、4.6~4.4 cal.ka B.P.、3.7~3.4 cal.ka B.P.、3.1~2.9 cal.ka B.P.以及2.0~0.9 cal.ka B.P.,可以发现中晚全新世以来亚洲夏季风衰退事件发生的频率显著增加。进一步与北半球高纬地区与低纬地区的气候突变事件记录对比显示,全新世百年-千年时间尺度上亚洲夏季风强度的变化与低纬ENSO活动存在密切的联系。     

强弱风浪扰动下太湖的营养盐垂向分布特征

在一次风速12m/s的强风浪过程中及在连续多天弱风浪之后,对太湖梅梁湾一浅水区营养盐、悬浮物等的垂向分布进行了观测和分析。结果表明,在水底沉积物约20cm的情况下,强风浪期间与弱风浪期间相比,湖水中悬浮物浓度提高了10倍,总磷浓度提高了3 6倍。而强风浪期间与弱风浪期间的水体溶解性总磷(DTP)、溶解性活性磷(SRP)的浓度无显著差异。说明尽管强风浪过程引起沉积物大量悬浮,水体悬浮颗粒态营养盐显著增高,但是由于悬浮过程营养盐释放与沉降机制作用十分复杂,活性营养盐的浓度未必能提高。无论强风浪还是弱风浪期间,水体的表层至水土界面上50cm层的悬浮物浓度、营养盐浓度没有明显的分层现象,但明显低于水土界面上50cm内的悬浮物浓度和总磷浓度。无论是强风浪期间还是弱风浪期间,表层到底层水体SRP浓度无显著差异。