Impact of vertical structure on water mass circulation in a tropical lagoon (Ebrié, Ivory Coast)

A one-dimensional vertical model has been developed to simulate the water mass circulation along the vertical structure in all deep coastal areas. The model has hydrodynamic and transport components solved using finite difference scheme. The one-dimensional vertical model results are coupled to the vertically averaged two-dimensional model results at each point of a horizontal grid. A theoretical salinity profile is introduced for each vertically integrated value obtained from the 2DH model results. A viscosity profile, simulating a viscosity value close to zero at the surface and with large viscosity gradients, is applied along the water column. The model is applied to the Vridi channel, connecting the Ebrié lagoon to the sea (Ivory Coast).The response of the Ebrié lagoon is studied in terms of inflow and outflow of water in the system through the Vridi channel. Due to the abrupt variation of the surface slope, vertical velocities along the water column show an anticlockwise spiral from bottom to surface during a tidal cycle. Due to the bottom friction and to the vertical viscosity profile, velocities decrease from surface to bottom. However, the freshwater inflow slows down the tidal propagation during the flood and causes the surface velocity to be smaller than the bottom velocity at mid-tide. Close to the bottom, velocities follow an anticlockwise movement due to the tidal propagation. At the water surface, velocities follow only an alternative movement of either ebb or flood, along the channel direction. No cross shore velocities can develop at the surface in the channel.     

Influence of friction on erosion and accretion processes in the Yavaros Bay,Gulf of California

A two-dimensional, vertically integrated, nonlinear numerical model was applied to investigate the tide-driven bed load transport of sediments and morphodynamics in the shallow coastal lagoon of Yavaros, located in the southeastern part of the Gulf of California, Mexico. Satellite imagery exposes strong sediment dynamics in this coastal region. The dynamics in the lagoon were forced by 13 tidal constituents at the open boundary. Tides are of a mixed character and they are predominantly semidiurnal. The calculations showed areas of intense tidal currents and considerable water exchange with the Gulf of California. Numerical experiments revealed an ebb-dominant tidal distortion and a net export of sediment from the lagoon to the Gulf of California. A simulation of 20 years showed that the lagoon exported about 1,600 m³ of sediment; however, the daily oscillating exchange of sediment reached values of around 8 m³. The daily averaged flux of export–import sediments oscillates principally with semiannual, monthly and fortnightly periods. By applying a threshold velocity, a variable friction coefficient and the calculated amplitude of tidal velocities, it was possible to determine that morphological changes occur in zones of sharp topographic gradients and to explain the effect of friction on the export–import process of sediments. A 10-year simulation revealed that accumulation of sediment (~20 cm) occurred in small areas, whereas erosion occurred in larger areas but with less intensity (~8 cm). Besides the importance for the morphodynamics, these kinds of erosion–accretion processes may be relevant for the marine ecology.     

Lagoon subsidence and tsunami on the West Coast of New Zealand

Sediment core and trench data from a coastal lagoon on the West Coast of the South Island, New Zealand are used to investigate evidence for co-seismic subsidence and associated tsunami inundation. Physical data are used to document a salt marsh soil buried  80 cm below the modern sediment surface that is locally covered by a gravelly sand bed. The sediment record also contains geochemical and biological (diatom and foram) evidence for abrupt changes in salinity of lagoon waters that link to subsidence, tsunami flooding and to the open versus closed state of the lagoon tidal entrance. At the local scale, these relationships allow for separation of tsunami evidence from other agents of environmental change in the lagoon. We also propose a conceptual connection between these local changes and regional drivers of landscape development, most notably major earthquakes and resultant pulses in sediment supply to the coast.     

Tidal frequency dynamics of a Southern Brazil coastal lagoon: Choking and short period forced oscillations

The Patos Lagoon is a choked, microtidal coastal laggon situated in southern Brazil between 30°S and 32°S. The response of the lagoon to tidal oscillations is studied through data analysis and numerical modeling experiments. Two types of high frequency oscillations are observed in the tidal frequency band: mixed tides, predominantly diurnal; and forced oscillations having a period of 24 h occurring in the inner lagoon. In the southern portion of the lagoon, tides are selectively filtered by the entrance channel. The main diurnal constituent O₁ is linearly attenuated as it progresses landwards. In the inner parts of the lagoon, 24-h oscillations are mainly forced by the combined effect of diurnal tides and sea breeze action. They are tied with a natural period of oscillation of 24 h. Results also indicate that these are not inertial frequency oscillations, despite the lagoon being placed in a critical 30°S area. The interaction between astronomical tides and meteorological effects produces a complicated picture for tidal forecasting derived from data collected inside the lagoon.     

Recruitment of juvenile marine fishes to seagrass habitat in a temperature Australian estuary

We investigated the relationship between distance from the ocean and the recruitment of ocean-spawned juvenile fish to seagrass shallows within marine dominated Lake Macquarie, a coastal barrier lagoon in Southeast Australia. Samples were taken by seine net every 6 wk between June 1986 and June 1987, at 20 sites established at various distances from the entrance channel. The fish fauna was diverse: 80 species from 39 families were caught, with the Gobiidae, Monacanthidae, Syngnathidae, Tetraodontidae, Mugilidae, Atherinidae, Clupeidae, Mullidae, Sparidae, and Blenniidae being well represented. Ambassis jacksoniensis, Atherinomorus ogilbyi, and Gerres subfasciatus accounted for 46% of all individuals. Thirty-two species were classified as ocean spawners, 38 as lagoon spawners, and 10 as unknown in terms of spawning area. Newly settled juveniles of ocean spawners were concentrated near the lagoon's entrance, where most recruited in spring. This pattern occurred in the absence of a salinity gradient: distance from the ocean coupled with weak internal water circulation appears to limit larval distribution and hence juvenile recruitment. Small juveniles of Rhabdosargus sarba were sufficiently abundant for their subsequent dispersal to be directly traced. On the basis of results for this species, and indirect evidence of dispersal for several others, it is suggested that ocean-spawned juveniles, after settling near the entrance, gradually disperse as they grow and change their habitat. Thus, further from the entrance, their recruitment to seagrass shallows is later, at larger sizes, and in smaller numbers. Newly settled juveniles of lagoon spawners, however, were widely distributed within the lagoon. The optimal recruitment of ocean-spawned juveniles to similar coastal lagoons may depend on suitable habitat being available near the entrance. *** DIRECT SUPPORT *** A01BY081 00003     

Exact solution for granular flows

In this paper, we present the exact solution of the Riemann problem for the nonlinear one‐dimensional so‐called shallow‐water or Saint‐Venant equations with friction proposed by SAVAGE and HUTTER to describe debris avalanches. This model is based on the depth‐averaged thin layer approximation of granular flows over sloping beds and takes into account a Coulomb type friction law with a constant friction coefficient. A particular configuration of the Riemann problem corresponds to a dam of infinite length in one direction from which granular material is released from rest at a given time over an inclined rigid or erodible bed. We solve analytically and numerically the depth‐averaged long‐wave equations derived in a topography‐linked coordinate system for all the possible Riemann problems. The detailed mathematical proof of the derivation of the analytical solutions and the analysis of their structure and properties is intended, first of all, for geophysicists, mathematicians, and physicists because of the possible extension of this study to more complex problems (geometries, friction laws, …). The numerical solution of the first‐order finite‐volume method based on a Godunov‐type scheme is compared with the proposed exact Riemann problem solution. This solution is used to solve the dam‐break problem and analyze the influence of the thickness of the erodible bed on the speed of the granular front. Comparison with existing experimental results shows that, for an erodible bed, the equations lack fundamental physical significance to reproduce the observed dynamics of erosive granular flows. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

石灰岩高速滚动摩擦特性

滑面的摩擦特性是高速岩质滑坡动力学研究的关键问题之一。以典型脆性灰岩为研究对象,借助滚动磨损试验设备,开展不同压力和转速条件下干燥和湿润灰岩的滚动摩擦试验,研究岩石动态摩擦特性（摩擦系数和磨损率）。试验结果表明,干燥和湿润岩石的滚动摩擦系数分别与摩擦速率呈负相关和正相关,与法向压力关系不明显。对于干燥灰岩,滚动试件（滑体）和静止试件（滑床）的磨损率与摩擦速率分别呈正相关和负相关。对于湿润灰岩,磨损率与摩擦速率呈正相关。基于Hertz弹性接触理论,推导出摩擦斑处的最大压应力和拉应力,进而提出相应条件下脆性灰岩的摩擦碎裂机制。结论可为灰岩高速滑坡防灾减灾提供设计参数。     

潮汐汊道形态动力过程研究综述

潮汐汊道是潮流作用占优势的沉积环境之一。潮汐汊道系统的口门水道往往是天然航道,在海港建设上具有重要性。从动力地貌学的观点来看,口门水道形态特征和演化研究涉及多种关键的海岸动力过程,因而具有重要的理论意义。均衡态下的潮汐汊道的口门过水断面面积与纳潮量之间存在着幂函数关系,当用传统的O′Brien方法来确定幂函数曲线时,指数n的值变化范围较大,这是由于参与统计分析的部分汊道系统未达到均衡态而造成的;而应用沉积动力学方法,所获的n值稳定在1.15左右,能更好地代表均衡态断面面积。在断面形状上,小型潮汐汊道可以形成宽浅水道中镶嵌次级水道的形态,以适应沉积物输运和堆积过程,提高汊道系统的稳定性。因此,小型潮汐汊道具有不同于大型潮汐汊道的时间—流速不对称特征。这些研究结果在小型汊道的开发和整治工程上具有应用价值。由于口门断面形态是与口门水道和潮流三角洲的整体特征及其动态相联系的,因此,今后的研究重点应是水动力条件、沉积物输运和堆积过程、水道形态之间的反馈关系,以及与纳潮海湾充填同步的潮流三角洲的生长过程,从而使水道地貌演化能够被定量地模拟。     

Watershed Controls on the Geomorphology of Small Coastal Lagoons in an Active Tectonic Environment

This study investigates the relations between watershed precipitation, upstream channel slope, and the geomorphology of 19 small (40 to 18,658 m²), fluvial-incised lagoons in the actively uplifting piedmont near Santa Barbara, CA. Lagoons in the study are funnel-shaped, shallow (<2 m), river-dominated, and enclosed by a sandy to cobble-sized beach barrier for much of the year. Results indicate a strong link between watershed processes and lagoon geomorphology, such that a significant portion of the variability in lagoon area, length, volume, average width, circularity, and lagoon width expansion can be explained by the variability of watershed precipitation and channel slope upstream of the lagoons. Performing multiple regression analysis with watershed precipitation and channel slope as independent variables, coefficients of determination for the power function regressions are 0.88 (lagoon area), 0.88 (lagoon volume), 0.83 (lagoon volume), and 0.74 (average width). Upstream slope is the best single predictor of lagoon geomorphology.     

Time-dependent modeling of the Baltic entrance area. 2. Water and salt exchange of the Baltic Sea

A time-dependent model for stratification and circulation within the Baltic entrance area (Gustafsson 2000) is tested against observed salinities for the period 1961–1993. Although the Baltic Sea is one of the largest estuarine systems on earth, this model could be applicable to smaller estuarine systems and embayments with tidal exchange. The seasonal cycle of freshwater flux across the sill area does not follow the seasonal cycle of freshwater supply to the Baltic Sea. The seasonal variation of the flux is a combined effect of the seasonal variation in freshwater supply, in Baltic mean sea level, and in dispersion of salt across the sills. The seasonal variation in dispersion of salt is due to the seasonal cycle of sea level variability. The model is used to predict the inflow of high saline water to the Baltic Sea. The resulting inflow time-series is consistent with variations in the deep-water salinity and temperature in the deeper parts of the Baltic Sea. A comparison with previous estimates of the magnitude of major Baltic inflows shows that the model is able to reproduce the characteristics fairly well although the magnitude of the flows of water and salt appears lower than other estimates. It is shown that a climatic change that increases the wind mixing does not significantly change the major inflows. Both increased amplitudes of sea level variations in the Kattegat and decreased freshwater supply to the Baltic Sea substantially increase the magnitude of the inflows. It is shown that deep-water renewal in the Baltic Sea is obstructed during years with high freshwater supply even if the sea level forcing is favorable to a major inflow.     

Tidal and nontidal flushing of Florida’s Indian River Lagoon

The flushing of Florida’s Indian River Lagoon is investigated as a response to tidal and low-frequency lagoon-shelf exchanges in the presence of freshwater gains and losses. A one-dimensional computer model uses the continuity equation to convert water-level variations into both advective transport within the lagoon and lagoon-shelf exchanges. The model also incorporates transport by longitudinal diffusion. Flushing is quantified by calculating the 50% renewal time, R₅₀, for each of 16 segments. R₅₀ is calculated for tidal exchanges enhanced by 0–30 cm nontidal fluctuations in coastal sea level, then for a range of rainfall rates. In both series of simulations, results suggest that in the northern sub-basin, R₅₀ increases dramatically with distance from the inlet due to relatively weak tidal and nontidal exchanges. A 50% renewal occurs in about one tidal cycle just inside Sebastian Inlet; at the northern end of the northern sub-basin, R₅₀ is over 230 d, and only coastal sea-level variations on the order of 30 cm and/or dry season rainfall rates decrease R₅₀ to less than 1 yr. R₅₀ is 1 wk or less throughout the central and southern sub-basins, where lagoon-shelf exchanges occur through two inlets. Simulations involving seasonal variations in precipitation and evaporation indicate that maximum and minimum rates of freshwater input lead minimum and maximum salinities by time periods on the order of 2–3 wk for the lagoon as a whole and in the northern sub-basin. The central and southern sub-basins respond in 1–2 wk.     

Tidally-induced shear stress variability above intertidal mudflats in the macrotidal seine estuary

Tidal currents and the spatial variability of tidally-induced shear stress were studied during a tidal cycle on four intertidal mudflats from the fluvial to the marine part of the Seine estuary. Measurements were carried out during low water discharge (<400 m³ s⁻¹) in neap and spring tide conditions. Turbulent kinetic energy, covariance, and logarithmic profile methods were used and compared for the determination of shear stress. The c_TKE coefficient value of 0.19 cited in the literature was confirmed. Shear stress values were shown to decrease above mudflats from the mouth to the fluvial part of the estuary due to dissipation of the tidal energy, from 1 to 0.2 N m⁻² for spring tides and 0.8 to 0.05 N m⁻² for neap tides. Flood currents dominate tidally-induced shear stress in the marine and lower fluvial estuary during neap and spring tides and in the upper fluvial part during spring tides. Ebb currents control tidally-induced shear stress in the upper fluvial part of the estuary during neap tides. These results revealed a linear relationship between friction velocities and current velocities. Bed roughness length values were calculated from the empirical relationship given by Mitchener and Torfs (1996) for each site; these values are in agreement with the modes of the sediment particle-size distribution. The influence of tidal currents on the mudflat dynamics of the Seine estuary was examined by comparing the tidally-induced bed shear stress and the critical erosion shear stress estimated from bed sediment properties. Bed sediment resuspension induced by tidal currents was shown to occur only in the lower part of the estuary.     

A sedimentological approach to P-A relationships for tidal inlet systems: an example from Yuehu Inlet, Shandong Peninsula, China

Power-law relationship between tidal prism (P) and the cross-sectional area of the entrance channel (A) is applicable to assess the equilibrium conditions of a tidal inlet system. The classic method of determining P-A relationships proposed by O’Brien depends on datasets from multi-tidal inlet systems, which has shown some limitations and is unable to assess equilibrium of a single tidal inlet. This paper focuses on establishing a new P-A relationship for a single tidal inlet. Our experimental result shows that in order to maintain the status, power n should be > 1, implying that the inlet width will narrow and current speed within the entrance will increase as tidal prism becomes smaller. A possible explanation for power n <,1.0, as many researchers argued before, is that the influence of tidal prism has been exaggerated. Meanwhile, the magnitude of coefficient C is dependent on many factors such as longshore drift, freshwater discharge, etc, resulting in a wide range of variation of C. It should be pointed out that P-A relationship given by the sediment dynamical approach is still a representative of average status for tidal inlets in equilibrium. As tide, wave, freshwater discharge and tidal inlet morphology change with time, actual P-A relationships will fluctuate also. The problems that need to be solved when applying sediment dynamic methods to P-A relationships include the cross-sectional distribution pattern of tidal current speeds in the entrance channel, the relationship between the tidal current and the tidal water level at the entrance, and the calculation of the ratio of width to depth. This paper will establish a sediment dynamical approach of P-A relationship for a single tidal inlet. The results are tested for P-A relationships of Yuehu Inlet, a small inlet-lagoon system located in Shandong Peninsula, China. __________ Translated from Oceanologia Et Limnologia Sinica, 2005, 36(3): 269–276 [译自: 海洋与湖沼]     

Evolution and mechanics of a Miocene tidal sandwave

A remarkable exposure of Miocene marine molasse in western Switzerland records the evolution of a tidal sandwave over a period of approximately 2 1/2 months. The sandwave is composed of tidal ‘bundles’ in which a sandwave reactivation stage and full vortex stage can be recognized for the dominant flow (ebb tide) and a rippled flood apron overlain by high water drape for the reversed flow. Bundle thicknesses vary systematically through neap–spring cycles, with a periodicity of 27 demonstrating the semi-diurnal lunar control of sedimentation. Waves were an additional component, especially when superimposed on flood tides, producing near-symmetrical combined-flow ripple marks in the flood apron. Tidal current velocities are estimated using critical shear velocities for entrainment, the ripple-dune transition and the dune-plane bed transition. Using appropriate estimates of roughness lengths and a logarithmic velocity law, maximum tidal speeds at 1 m above the bed were approximately 0·6 m sec^?1 for ebbs and up to 0·5 m sec^?1 for floods. The enhancement by waves of bed shear stress (τ_wc/τ of approximately 2 for 1 m high waves) under flood currents implies flood tidal velocities closer to 0·2–0·3 m sec^?1. Peak instantaneous bedload sediment transport rates using a modified Bagnold equation are nearly 5 times greater under ebb tides than floods. The average net sediment transport rate at springs (0·04 kg m^?1 sec^?1) is over 10 times greater than at neaps (0·002 kg m^?1 sec^?1). Comparison with transport rates in modern tidal environments suggests that the marine molasse of Switzerland was deposited under spatially confined and relatively swift tidal flows not dissimilar to those of the present Dutch tidal estuaries.     

Bed topography and grain size in open channel bends

Engelund's (1974a, b) theoretical bed topography model for curved channels is modified and shown to fit natural channels when using values for the dynamic bed load friction coefficient of about 0·4–0·5. The dependence of this coefficient on grain size for flow in the lower flow regime is discussed. Using the bed topography model simultaneously, Allen's (1970a, b) theory for grain size variation over point bar profiles is shown to be broadly applicable. The interaction between sediment, flow and bed topography in bends is therefore adequately described.     

Characteristics of particle size for creeping and saltating sand grains in aeolian transport

Creep and saltation are the primary modes of surface transport involved in the fluid‐like movement of aeolian sands. Although numerous studies have focused on saltation, few studies have focused on creep, primarily because of the experimental difficulty and the limited amount of theoretical information available on this process. Grain size and its distribution characteristics are key controls on the modes of sand movement and their transport masses. Based on a series of wind tunnel experiments, this paper presents new data regarding the saltation flux, obtained using a flat sampler, and on the creeping mass, obtained using a specifically designed bed trap, associated with four friction velocities (0·41, 0·47, 0·55 and 0·61 m sec^?1). These data yielded information regarding creeping and saltating sand grains and their particle size characteristics at various heights, which led to the following conclusions: (i) the creeping masses increased as a power function (q = ?1·02 + 14·19u_*³) of friction wind velocities, with a correlation (R²) of 0·95; (ii) the flux of aeolian sand flow decreases exponentially with increasing height (q = a exp(–z/b)) and increases as a power function (q = ?26·30 + 428·40 u_*³) of the friction wind velocity; (iii) the particle size of creeping sand grains is ca 1·15 times of the mean diameter of salting sand grains at a height of 0 to 2 cm, which is 1·14 times of the mean diameter of sand grains in a bed; and (iv) the mean diameter of saltating sand grains decreases rapidly with increasing height whereas, while at a given height, the mean diameter of saltating sand grains is positively correlated with the friction wind velocity. Although these results require additional experimental validation, they provide new information for modelling of aeolian sand transport processes.     

Lateral Baroclinic Forcing Enhances Sediment Transport from Shallows to Channel in an Estuary

We investigate the dynamics governing exchange of sediment between estuarine shallows and the channel based on field measurements at eight stations spanning the interface between the channel and the extensive eastern shoals of South San Francisco Bay. The study site is characterized by longitudinally homogeneous bathymetry and a straight channel, with friction more important than the Coriolis forcing. Data were collected for 3 weeks in the winter and 4 weeks in the late summer of 2009, to capture a range of hydrologic and meteorologic conditions. The greatest sediment transport from shallows to channel occurred during a pair of strong, late-summer wind events, with westerly winds exceeding 10 m/s for more than 24 h. A combination of wind-driven barotropic return flow and lateral baroclinic circulation caused the transport. The lateral density gradient was produced by differences in temperature and suspended sediment concentration (SSC). During the wind events, SSC-induced vertical density stratification limited turbulent mixing at slack tides in the shallows, increasing the potential for two-layer exchange. The temperature- and SSC-induced lateral density gradient was comparable in strength to salinity-induced gradients in South Bay produced by seasonal freshwater inflows, but shorter in duration. In the absence of a lateral density gradient, suspended sediment flux at the channel slope was directed towards the shallows, both in winter and during summer sea breeze conditions, indicating the importance of baroclinically driven exchange to supply of sediment from the shallows to the channel in South San Francisco Bay and systems with similar bathymetry.     

Flow and sediment dynamics in a low sinuosity, braided river: Calamus River, Nebraska Sandhills

The interaction between channel geometry, flow, sediment transport and deposition associated with a midstream island was studied in a braided to meandering reach of the Calamus River, Nebraska Sandhills. Hydraulic and sediment transport measurements were made over a large discharge range using equipment operated from catwalk bridges. The relatively low sinuosity channel on the right-hand side of the island carries over 70% of the water discharge at high flow stages and 50–60% at low flow stages. As a result, mean velocity, depth, bed shear stress and sediment transport rate tend to be greater here than in the more strongly curved left-hand channel. The loci of maximum flow velocity, depth and bed shear stress are near the centre of the channel upstream of the island, but then split and move towards the outer banks of both channels downstream. Variations in these loci depend on the flow stage. Topographically induced across-stream flows are generally stronger than the weak, curvature-induced secondary circulations. Water surface topography is controlled mainly by centrifugal accelerations and local changes in downstream flow velocity. The averaged water surface slope of the study reach varies very little with discharge, having values between 0·00075 and 0·00090. As bed shear stress generally varies in a similar way to mean velocity, friction coefficients vary little, normally being in the range 0·07–0·13. These values are similar to those in straight channels with sandy dune-covered beds. Bedload is moved mainly as dunes at all flow stages. Grain size is mainly medium sand with coarse sand moved in thalwegs adjacent to the cut banks, and with fine sand at the downstream end of the island. These patterns of flow velocity, depth, water surface topography, bed shear stress, bedload transport rate and mean grain size can be accurately predicted using theoretical models of flow, bed topography and sediment transport rate in single river bends, applied separately to the left and right channels. During high flow stages deposition occurs persistently near the downstream end of the island, and cut banks are eroded. Otherwise, erosion and deposition occurs only locally within the channel as discharge varies. Abandonment and filling of a strongly curved channel segment may occur by migration of an upstream bar into the channel entrance at a high flow stage.     

The stability of a remediated bed in Hamilton Harbour,Lake Ontario,Canada

ABSTRACT In situ measurements of lakebed sediment erodibility were made on three sites in Hamilton Harbour, Lake Ontario, using the benthic flume Sea Carousel. Three methods of estimating the surface erosion threshold (τ_c(0)) from a Carousel time series were evaluated: the first method fits measures of bed strength to eroded depth (the failure envelope) and evaluates threshold as the surface intercept; the second method regresses mean erosion rate (E_m) with bed shear stress and solves for the floc erosion rate (E_f) to derive the threshold for E_m = E_f = 1 × 10^?5 kg m^?2 s^?1; the third method extrapolates a regression of suspended sediment concentration (S) and fluid transmitted bed shear stress (τ₀) to ambient concentrations. The first field site was undisturbed (C) and acted as a control; the second (W) was disturbed through ploughing and water injection as part of lakebed treatment, whereas the third site (OIP) was disturbed and injected with an oxidant used for remediation of contaminated sediment. The main objectives of this study were: (1) to evaluate the three different methods of deriving erosion threshold; (2) to compare the physical behaviour of lacustrine sediments with their marine estuarine counterparts; and (3) to examine the effects of ploughing and chemical treatment of contaminated sediment on bed stability. Five deployments of Sea Carousel were carried out at the control site. Mean erosion thresholds for the three methods were: τ_c(0) = 0·5 (±0·06), 0·27 (±0·01) and 0·34 (±0·03) Pa respectively. Method 1 overpredicted bed strength as it was insensitive to effects in the surface 1–2 mm, and the fit of the failure envelope was also highly subjective. Method 2 exhibited a wide scatter in the data (low correlation coefficients), and definition of the baseline erosion rate (E_f) is largely arbitrary in the literature. Method 3 yielded stable (high correlation coefficients), reproducible and objective results and is thus recommended for evaluation of the erosion threshold. The results of this method correlated well with sediment bulk density and followed the same trend as marine counterparts from widely varying sites. Mass settling rates, expressed as a decay constant, k, of S(t), were strongly related to the maximum turbidity at the onset of settling (S_max) and were also in continuity with marine counterparts. Thus, it appears that differences in salinity had little effect on mass settling rates in the examples presented, and that biological activity dominated any effects normally attributable to changes in salinity. Bedload transport of eroded aggregates (2–4 mm in diameter) took place by rolling below a mean tangential flow velocity (U_y) of 0·32 ms^?1 and by saltation at higher velocities. Mass transport as bedload was a maximum at U_y = 0·4 ms^?1, although bedload never exceeded 1% of the suspended load. The proportion of material moving as bedload was greatest at the onset of erosion but decreased as flow competence increased. Given the low bulk density and strength of the lakebed sediment, the presence of a bedload component is notable. Bedload transport over eroding cohesive substrates should be greater in estuaries, where both sediment density and strength are usually higher. Significant differences between the ploughed and control sites were apparent in both the erosion rate and the friction coefficient (φ), and suggest that bed recovery after disruption is rapid (< 24 h). τ_c(0) increased linearly with time after ploughing and recovered to the control mean value within 3 days. The friction coefficient was reduced to zero by ploughing (diagnostic of fluidization), but increased linearly with time, regaining control values within 6 days. No long‐term reduction in bed strength due to remediation was apparent.     

Factors influencing the salinity regime of Lake Pontchartrain,Lousiana, a shallow coastal lagoon: Analysis of a long-term data set

Lake Pontchartrain., Louisiana is a 1,630 km² shallow brackish lagoon with a mean salinity from 1.2‰ in the west to 5.4‰ in the east., The construction of a 120 km long deep-water connection to the Gulf of Mexico in 1963, was expected to cause a 5‰ increase in lagoon salinity. However, the actual increase was everywhere in the lagoon less than 2‰ Analysis of 31 years of daily salinity and discharge records indicates that discharge is the most important factor controlling salinity variations in Lake Pontchartrain., Seventy-four percent of low-frequency salinity variations are explained by freshwater discharge and the completion of the deep-water canal. Lake Pont.-chartrain experiences annual variations of salinity as high as 8‰ This salinity signal has remained constant since the beginning of the salinity records in 1946. It appears that the deep-water canal is not responsible for observed die-back of freshwater swamps and retreat of lagoon shorelines.