Ore-magmatic systems of the Noril’sk ore field

Plutonogenic ore-magmatic systems of the Noril’sk ore field are unique constituents of the P₂–T₁ trap formation in the East Siberian Platform. We consider the formation of ore-bearing intrusions, evolution of Cr-spinels in intrusive magmatites, possible mechanisms of formation of massive, disseminated, and impregnated magmatic sulfide ores, possible reasons for the abundance of sulfide melts, quasi-anhydrite isotopic composition of sulfur of sulfide ores, and products of interaction of sulfide melts with ore-hosting basites. The unique contents of PGE, Ag, and Au in ores (eutectic Iss–PbSss intergrowths, crystallization products of low-temperature Ni-Fe-Cu-Pb-S melts) have been estimated for the first time. We have established that pneumatolytic Ag-Au-Pt-Pd mineralization is intimately related to the fluid aureoles near magmatic sulfide bodies. Pneumatolytic PGM are subdivided into early (tetraferroplatinum with lamellae atokite, paolovite with lamellae of insizwaite-geversite and niggliite, etc.), middle (rustenburgite-atokite-zvyagintsevite, mayakite, stannopalladinite, polarite, plumbopalladinite, maslovite, tatiyanite-taimyrite, Pd-Pt-containing tetraauricupride, etc.), late (sobolevskite, froodite, hessite, michenerite, cabriite, minerals of Au-Ag series, etc.), and the latest (sperrylite). The direct, reverse, oscillation, and complex zoning of gold particles is much due to variations in the Te activity in the fluids. Pneumatolytic noble-metal minerals were produced at <490 ºC in strongly reducing conditions with extremely low S₂ fugacity. The Pb isotope composition evidences that all systems of the trap formation in the Noril’sk region had the same mantle source. The Pb isotope compositions of ore-bearing intrusions, magmatic sulfide ores, PbSss, and Pd-Pt intermetallides in the Noril’sk and Talnakh ore clusters differ significantly: Lead in the Talnakh cluster is more radiogenic. This evidences genetic relations between sulfide ores and particular intrusions as well as different intermediate magma chambers in the Noril’sk and Talnakh clusters, and a higher degree of contamination of mantle magmas in the Talnakh cluster, which might be the explanation of its giant area.     

Geological characteristics of the Sizhuang gold deposit in the region of Jiaodong, Shandong Province——A study on tectono-geochemical ore prospecting of ore deposits

Tectono-geochemical samples were systematically collected from 5 drillcores along the No. 304 explora-tion line and at the -310 m level under the pit in the mining area, totalling 705 samples from the metamorphic rocks, granites, altered rocks and orebodies, and were determined for their contents of 20 kinds of elements including Au, Ag, As, Sb, Hg, Cu,,Pb, Zn, Sn, Bi, Mo, Co, Ni, Mn, Cr, V, Ti, Ba, Rb, Sr, etc. By using the Surfer software the geochemical exploration line profile maps for the 20 kinds of elements and the curves for the element geochemical contents of individual ore vein groups were established. In conbination with the geochemical map analytical method and Gregorian’s zoning index calculation method, the vertical, longitudinal and lateral zonation sequences of the elements were ascertained and the geochemical three-dimentional zonation model of the primary halos was estab-lished on the basis of the analysis of metallogenic structures and alteration zonation. Coupled with the results of analysis of the geology and geochemistry data, it may be concluded that the process of alteration of granites in the mining area is also accompanied with the process of gold enrichment and mineralization. With the intensification of alteration of granites from granite →potash feldspathization granite →sericite-quartz alteration granite, seric-ite-quartz rocks →beresitized granite, pyrite sericite-quartz rock, silicified granite →gold ore, the contents of thio-phile ore-forming elements such as Au, Ag, As, Cu, Bi, Mo, Pb, Sb, Hg, and Sn tended to increase. Factor analysis of trace elements indicated: factor F2 (Au, Ag, Cu, Sn, As) represents the element association brought in at the main stage of hydrothermal metallogenesis; factor F4 (Bi, Sb) and factor F5 (Pb, Zn) represent the ore-forming element association supperposed during the late stage of Au-bearing sulfides. By using the Gregorian’s zoning index and map analysis method we have ascertained the primary halo axial zonation sequence (form frontal halo →tail halo): Pb, Zn, Mn, Ba, Sr, Rb, As, Sb, Ag, Cu, Sn, Mo, Au, Bi, Hg, Ti, Cr, V, Ni, and Co. The geochemical anomalies in the mining area display a tendency of lateral plunging to WS, which is consistent with the lateral plunging of orebodies and mineralization alteration zone. Comprehensive analysis of the results of investigations on ore-controlling structures, mineralization-alteration zonation and geochemical zonation of the primary halos indicates that the gold orebodies in this area are still of greater extension.     

Evolution of manganese ore genesis in the earth’s geological history and the role of the biosphere

The formation of manganese rocks and ores occurred during the whole geological history of the Earth. Five metallogenic epochs (Early to Middle Proterozoic, Late Proterozoic, Early to Middle Paleozoic, Late Paleozoic, and Meso-Cenozoic) and 7 very important phases (Early, Middle, and Late Proterozoic, Early to Middle Paleozoic, Late Paleozoic, Late Mesozoic, and Meso-Cenozoic) can be distinguished. The phases of manganese ore genesis at many stratigraphic levels are closely related to the global climatic and tectonic reconstructions (the breakup of the continent of Gondwana and periods of glaciations and aridization) and biotic events (mass extinction of organisms). Based on carbon isotopic composition in manganese carbonates, participation of oxidized organic carbon is established.     

Maucherite from metamorphic-hydrothermal assemblages of the Noril’sk ore field

In the Noril’sk ore field, maucherite, Ni₁₁As₈, occurs in magmatic pentlandite-pyrrhotite-chalcopyrite ores transformed into pyrite-millerite-chalcopyrite and millerite-bornite ores under conditions of prehnite-pumplellyite and zeolite facies of metamorphism. Maucherite spatially associated with aggregates of Pd and Pt minerals, probably, as a pseudomorph after mayakite, PdNiAs, contains up to 1.5 wt % Pd. Maucherite is relatively abundant in metamorphic-hydrothermal apophyllite-anhydrite-calcite veins hosted in metaore. In these veins, maucherite occurs as finely split and long-prismatic crystals, their intergrowths, and as a constituent of complexly zoned antimonide-sulfoarsenide-arsenide nodules. Maucherite from veins contains up to 0.6 wt % S and Sb, whereas Pd, Pt, and Au are below the detection limit of an electron microprobe.     

Influences of ore formation on biomarkers in the Kupferschiefer from the Lubin mine, Poland

Molecular biomarkers are the important maturity parameters for sedimentary organic matter.They have also been widely used for determining the maturity of organic matter in ore deposits. However,during the study of organic matter in the Kupferschiefer from the Lubin mine, it had been found that the biomarkers were influenced by sulfide formation. In order to probe into the degree of influence on biomarkers, seven samples collected from a Kupferschiefer section from the Lubin mine were analyzed by various geochemical methods. The results indicated that in the samples with higher copper contents, the values of biomarkers are lower than in the samples with lower copper contents. In highly mineralized samples, hydrogen donation for thermochemical sulfate reduction (TSR) occurred in alkylated phenanthrenes and naphthalenes, leading to the decrease of 12 biomarker parameters during the Kupferschiefer mineralization.     

Geodynamic simulation of ore-bearing geological structural units by the example of the Strel’tsovka uranium ore field

Information on designing a 3D integrated model of the deflected mode (DM) of rock massif near the Strel’tsovka uranium ore field (SUOF) in the southeastern Transbaikal region is presented in the paper. This information is based on the contemporary stresses estimated by geostructural and tectonophysical techniques and by studying the seismotectonic deformation of the Earth’s surface using the data on earthquake source mechanisms and GPS geodesy focused on the recognition of active faults. A combination of the results of geostructural, geophysical, geotectonic, and petrophysical research, as well as original maps of faulting and the arrangement of seismic dislocations and seismotectonic regimes (stress tensors), allowed us to design models of the structure, properties, and rheological links of the medium and to determine the boundary conditions for numerical tectonophysical simulation using the method of terminal elements. The computed 2D and 3D models of the state of the rock massif have been integrated into 3D GIS created on the basis of the ArcGIS 10 platform with an ArcGIS 3D-Analyst module. The simulation results have been corroborated by in situ observations on a regional scale (the Klichka seismodislocation, active from the middle Pliocene to date) and on a local scale (heterogeneously strained rock massif at the Antei uranium deposit). The development of a regional geodynamic model of geological structural units makes it possible to carry out procedures to ensure the safety of mining operations under complex geomechanical conditions that can expose the operating mines and mines under construction, by the Argun Mining and Chemical Production Association (PAO PPGKhO) on a common methodical and geoinformational platform, to the hazards of explosions, as well as to use the simulation results aimed at finding new orebodies to assess the flanks and deep levels of the ore field.     

Tectonics and metallogeny of the Khakandzha ore district in the Okhotsk–Chukotka volcanic belt

The data on the structure, geodynamics, and metallogeny of the Khakandzha ore district in northwestern Okhotsk region are analyzed and the two main factors responsible for the localization of ore deposits are defined. The magmatic factor controls the confinement of the ore district to the tectono-magmatic structure of the central type (source of ore matter), which determines the concentric zoning patterns in the distribution of ore mineralization. The tectonic factor determines the confinement of the ore districts, deposits, and ore occurrences of the region to the meridional left-lateral shear structure, which controls the magma and fluid distribution. Local extension (transtension) in this structure against the background of general lateral compression (transpression) provided tectonic environments most favorable for ore accumulation.     

Redox problems in the “metallogenic specialization” of magmatic rocks and the genesis of hydrothermal ore mineralization

Considering the history and current state of the problem of the so-called metallogenic specialization of magmatic rocks, the paper places emphasis onto various aspects of the genesis of ore mineralization depending on the redox state of magmas (as a logical continuation of S. Ishihara’s works), fluids, and host rocks. These problems were inadequately poorly explored and discussed by researchers dealing with ore deposits. Various possible variants of ore-forming redox processes for different types of mineral deposits, with ore mineralization affiliated to granites (Ta, Sn, W, Mo, and Be) and mafic magmas (Au, Ag, U, Cu, Zn, Pb, As, Sb, and Hg) and, accordingly, to crustal and mantle origin, are discussed. On the basis of analyzed geological data, including those published over the past three decades, it is shown that the redox state of ore-producing magmas commonly significantly impacted not only the ore potential of magmatic complexes but also the genetic type of the ore mineralization. The redox state of the fluids predetermined the transport and precipitation speciation of metals. Influence mechanisms of hydrocarbons from sedimentary country rocks and gaseous products of their pyrolysis on ore deposition of various metals are considered. Understanding these mechanisms can be helpful for predicting the possible precipitation sites of ore mineralization of noble, radioactive, and chalcophile metals.     

In-bearing potential of tin‒sulfide mineralization in ore deposits of the Russian Far East

The increased demand for indium has made it necessary to revise prospects of In-bearing tin ore deposits in the Russian Far East on the basis of geological data and results of recent analytical methods (X-ray fluorescence with synchrotron radiation, atomic absorption, and ICP-MS). The average In contents in ores of the Tigrinoe and Pravourmiiskoe deposits vary from 55 to 70 ppm, which allows tin ore deposits with Sn?sulfide mineralization to be considered as quite promising with respect to In production from ores of Russian deposits. By their estimated In reserves, the Tigrinoe and Pravourmiiskoe deposits may be attributed to large ore objects.     

Lead isotope systematics of ore systems of the Macquarie Arc — Implications for arc substrate

The Macquarie Arc of New South Wales hosts several major Au and Cu deposits. We present new Pb isotope results for Cadia, the Copper Hill, Little Copper Hill and Cowal deposits, along with data from the CSIRO database. The results generally plot close to established mantle growth curves and are similar to oceanic basalts. Data for individual deposits mostly have Pb model ages consistent with independent age constraints on mineralization. Intrusions associated with the Early Silurian mineralization at Cadia and Goonumbla have narrow and distinct Pb isotope signatures that we interpret to be the result of partial melting of already LILE-enriched mantle-like sources. The data suggest that deposits of the Macquarie Arc derived Pb from one or more long-lived mantle-like Pb isotope reservoirs without significant contributions of crustal Pb prior to the Benambran Orogeny.Data for the Copper Hill deposits includes unradiogenic, possibly old Pb and supports previous workers who suggested that old MORB-like basalts may occur at depth in the area. The Peak Hill deposit has the most unradiogenic signature and has the lowest ²⁰⁸Pb/²⁰⁴Pb and ²⁰⁷Pb/²⁰⁴Pb. These signatures closely match Cambrian MORB-like basalts in the Koonenberry Belt and are unlike Cambrian mafic rocks in Victoria. Similar rocks could form part of the substrate to other parts of the Macquarie Arc.     

Helium, lead and sulfur isotope geochemistry of the Gejiu Sn-polymetallic ore deposit and the sources of ore-forming materials

Studies on the helium, lead and sulfur isotopic composition were performed of the Gejiu super-large Sn-polymetallic ore deposit. The results indicated that the ore-forming materials came from different sources and the deposit is a product of superimposed mineralization. The deposit is characterized by multi-source and multi-period mineralization, which experienced submarine hydrothermal deposition and Late Yanshanian magmatic hydrothermal mineralization. It is held that the Gejiu super-large Sn-polymetallic ore deposit is a multi-genesis deposit.     

An overview of the pegmatitic landscape from the pole to the equator – Applied geomorphology and ore guides

Pegmatites and aplites share the common major constituents with the granitoid suite as well as various gneissic lithologies, e.g., orthogneisses, aplitic gneisses. Not surprising, the pegmatitic landscape has landforms resembling some found in landscapes derived from metamorphic and granitic rocks that genetically next of kin of pegmatites. The wealth of rare minerals, the peculiar shape, the zonation into a rim extremely vulnerable to weathering and a hard silica core renders pegmatites strikingly different from the afore-mentioned crystalline rocks and account for a landscape type of its own. The primary features of pegmatites, shape and composition, the key elements of the CMS classification scheme (Chemical composition-Mineral assemblage-Structural geology) also are critical for the secondary alteration of these rocks and the evolution of a pegmatitic landscape. The 1st order landscape formation, involving geomorphology sensu stricto and weathering contributes to the built-up of five morphological types (erosional type I, alteration type II, mixed type III, composite type IV (erosion-transport-deposition), hidden type V (under an intact roof rock or under clastic overburden)). The minerals produced by chemical weathering are accountable for type II and III, whereas the relic minerals are accountable for type I, III, IV and V. Morphological type IV leads to different placer deposits. The 2nd order landscape formation is governed by the climate giving rise to discrete zones arranged from the pole to the equator and two genetic types, the plain and valley types. Both types can genetically be correlated with the wet-and-dry and the tropical humid climates. Placers developed a clastic apron around pegmatites abundant in relic minerals whereas minerals newly formed during chemical weathering lead to clay deposits resting immediately on top of pegmatites. In terms of applied geomorphology, reading and understanding a pegmatitic landscape means creating an “ore guide” to the pegmatites, to their argillaceous supergene deposits in the apical part and their cogenetic placer deposits around. The current overview is a supplement to the review Dill (2015a).     

Isotope geochemistry of ore fluids for the Dongsheng sandstone-type uranium deposit, China

The Dongsheng sandstone-type uranium deposit is one of the large-sized sandstone-type uranium deposits discovered in the northern part of the Ordos Basin of China in recent years. Geochemical characteristics of the Dongsheng uranium deposit are significantly different from those of the typical interlayered oxidized sandstone-type uranium ore deposits in the region of Middle Asia. Fluid inclusion studies of the uranium deposit showed that the uranium ore-forming temperatures are within the range of 150–160℃. Their 3He/4He ratios are within the range of 0.02–1.00 R/Ra, about 5–40 times those of the crust. Their 40Ar/36Ar ratios vary from 584 to 1243, much higher than the values of atmospheric argon. The δ18OH2O and δD values of fluid inclusions from the uranium deposit are -3.0‰– -8.75‰ and -55.8‰– -71.3‰, respectively, reflecting the characteristics of mixed fluid of meteoric water and magmatic water. The δ18OH2O and δD values of kaolinite layer at the bottom of the uranium ore deposit are 6.1‰ and -77‰, respectively, showing the characteristics of magmatic water. The δ13CV-PDB and δ18OH2O values of calcite veins in uranium ores are -8.0‰ and 5.76‰, respectively, showing the characteristics of mantle source. Geochemical characteristics of fluid inclusions indicated that the ore-formation fluid for the Dongsheng uranium deposit was a mixed fluid of meteoric water and deep-source fluid from the crust. It was proposed that the Jurassic-Cretaceous U-rich metamorphic rocks and granites widespread in the northern uplift area of the Ordos Basin had been weathered and denudated and the ore-forming elements, mainly uranium, were transported by meteoric waters to the Dongsheng region, where uranium ores were formed. Tectonothermal events and magmatic activities in the Ordos Basin during the Mesozoic made fluids in the deep interior and oil/gas at shallow levels upwarp along the fault zone and activated fractures, filling into U-bearing clastic sandstones, thus providing necessary energy for the formation of uranium ores.     

Mineralogical characterization of the Nkamouna Co–Mn laterite ore, southeast Cameroon

The Nkamouna property is an oxide laterite deposit developed on serpentinized peridotite in southeast Cameroon. It is enriched in Co and Mn, has sub-economic Ni grades and will be mined primarily for Co. The ore zone is ca. 10 m thick and comprises the lower breccia (～3 m thick) and ferralite (7–8 m thick) units sandwiched between an 8-m-thick ferricrete overburden and a barren hydrated Mg–silicate saprolite. The ore mineral assemblage includes Mn oxyhydroxides, magnetite, maghemite, ferritchromite, goethite, hematite, kaolinite and gibbsite. Lithiophorite is the most common Mn mineral and is the main host of Co, Mn and a significant proportion of Ni. It occurs as coatings in pores and on other mineral grains and as concretions and impregnations in the matrix. It is invariably associated with gibbsite in the lower breccia and with magnetite and ferritchromite in the ferralite. Although ore in the lower breccia is volumetrically less important than the ferralite, it has the highest grade and Co/Ni ratio. The lithiophorite in the ore zone is authigenic, and its formation was enhanced by influx of Al³⁺ from the overlying ferricrete. Magnetite and ferritchromite in the ferralite are relicts and contributed to mineralization by enhancing the permeability of the ferralite and providing substrates for the precipitation of the Mn oxyhydroxides. The structure and mode of occurrence of the lithiophorite makes Nkamouna ore amenable to physical beneficiation, producing a concentrate with Co grades 2.3–4.5 times higher than the run-of-mine ore.     

Study on the multi-sources of ore-forming materials and ore-forming fluids in the Huize lead-zinc ore deposit

TheHuizelarge sizedPb ZndepositinYunnan ProvinceislocatedinthecenteroftheSichuan Yun nan GuizhouPb Zn Agpolymetalmineralizationzone(SYGPb ZnMMD)inwesternYangtzePlateandis oneofthefamousPb Zn GebasesinChina(Wang Jiangzhenetal.,2003;WangXiaochunetal.,2000).Thisdeposit,whichischaracterizedbylarge scale(Pb+Znmetallicreservesarehigherthan5mil liontons),highPb+Zngrade(thePb+Zngradesof mostoresare25%-35%),highabundanceofuseful associatedelements(Ag,Ge,Cd,Ga,etc.)and someimportantbreakt…     

Tourmaline from deposits of the Birgil’da-Tomino ore cluster, South Urals

Tourmalines from the Kalinovka porphyry copper deposit with epithermal bismuth-gold-basemetal mineralization and the Michurino gold-silver-base-metal prospect have been studied in the South Urals. Tourmaline from the Kalinovka deposit occurs as pockets and veinlets in quartz-sericite metasomatic rock and propylite. The early schorl-“oxy-schorl” [Fe_tot/(Fe_tot + Mg) = 0.66?0.81] enriched in Fe³⁺ is characterized by the homovalent isomorphic substitution of Fe³⁺ for Al typical of propylites at porphyry copper deposits. The overgrowing tourmalines of the second and third generations from propylite and quartz-sericite metasomatic rock are intermediate members of the dravite-magnesio-foitite solid solution series [Fe_tot/(Fe_tot + Mg) = 0.05?0.46] with homovalent substitution of Mg for Fe²⁺ and coupled substitution of ^X _? + ^YAl for ^XNa + ^YMg. These substitutions differ from the coupled substitution of ^YAl + ^WO^2? for ^YFe²⁺ + ^WOH^? in tourmaline from quartz-sericite rocks at porphyry copper deposits. At the Michurino prospect, the tourmaline hosted in the chlorite-pyrite-quartz veins and veinlets with Ag-Au-Cu-Pb-Zn mineralization is an intermediate member of the dravite-magnesio-foitite solid solution series [Fe_tot/(Fe_tot + Mg) = 0.20?0.31] with homovalent substitution of Mg for Fe²⁺ and coupled substitutions of ^X _? + ^YAl for ^XNa + ^YMg identical to that of late tourmaline at the Kalinovka deposit. Thus, tourmalines of the porphyry and epithermal stages are different in isomorphic substitutions, which allow us to consider tourmaline as an indicator of super- or juxtaposed mineralization.     

On the metallogenesis of Dajing Cu-Sn-polymetallic ore deposit, Inner Mongolia, China

The Dajing Cu-Sn-polymetallic ore deposit is famous for its large scale, abundant associated elements, narrow and closely-spaced development of ore veins and high grade, but exploration within the mining district and its deeper parts has revealed no Yanshanian rockbody. Therefore, there have been proposed a diversity of hypotheses on the genesis of the deposit. The authors, from the angle of mantle-branch structure, provided evidence showing that the mining district is located in the core of the Da Hinggan Ling mantle-branch structure, the multi-stage evolution of mantle plume paved the way for the ascending of deep-source ore fluids and these fluids extracted part of the ore-forming materials. Then, these ore-forming materials were concentrated in the favorable structural loci (e.g. structural fissures) to form ores. The orientation of ore-forming and ore-controlling fissures is closely related to the regionally structural stress field at the metallogenic stage. The zonation of Sn, Cu, Au, Ag, Pb, and Zn within the mining district appears to be related to metallogenesis and the crystallization temperature of ore-forming materials. Mineralization of Sn, Cu, Au, etc. which require relatively high crystallization temperature and pressure is in most cases recognized in the central part of the mining district, while that of Ag, Pb, Zn, etc. which require relatively low crystallization temperature and pressure is, for the most part, produced in the periphery of the mining district.     

Age of dispersed uranium mineralization in rocks of the framework of the Strel’tsovka uranium ore field and the Yamsky site,Eastern Transbaikal region

An isotopic geochronological study of dispersed uranium mineralization was performed in the granitic rocks of the Urtui pluton in the framework of the Strel’tsovka uranium ore field and in the Yamsky site of the Urov-Uryumkan granite-gneiss arch. Two stages of such mineralization—783 ± 26 Ma in the Urtui granitic pluton and 138.6 ± 2.3 Ma in the Yamsky site—have been established. The emplacement of granite pertaining to the Unda Complex disturbed the U-Pb isotopic system in uraninite from the Urtui granitic pluton and resulted in redeposition of uranium phase dated at 262 ± 34 Ma. The young, probably, recent process gave rise to the redistribution of radiogenic lead in the U-bearing phases developing after uraninite.