1995年我国天气气候特点

１９９５年，我国大部地区降水正常或偏多，但季节分配不均。春季，北方干旱范围较大，陕、甘等省冬春夏连旱，旱情严重。汛期，江南及东北南部暴雨频繁，赣、湘、辽、吉等省发展严重洪涝。全国大部地区热量比较充足，但光照条件欠佳，部分地区作物遭受低温寡照或霜冻危害。登陆台风和热带风暴偏多，两广局地损失严重。部分地区遭受风雹或沙尘暴袭击。     

The U.K. Meteorological Office mesoscale model

A mesoscale numerical weather prediction model has been developed at the U.K. Meteorological Office and is being tested as an operational short period forecasting tool. It has been constructed with a high degree of flexibility so that it can easily be used in other applications such as pollution dispersal modelling. It has a comprehensive suite of subgrid scale parametrizations modelling vertical turbulent transport, surface and cloud top radiation, surface exchanges, precipitation and penetrative convection. For routine use, a sophisticated initialisation scheme has been devised utilising inputs from its own previous forecast, a larger scale model, and surface synoptic observations. An important interactive analysis element has also been designed into this procedure. Results of cloud predictions are presented which show a useful level of skill.     

灾害性天气对阿克苏地区棉花生产的影响

灾害性天气已经成为阿克苏地区发展优质、高产、低成本棉花生产的重要制约因素。本文根据近10年的资料，着重分析寒潮、霜冻、低温、大风、沙尘、暴雨洪水、冰雹等灾害性天气对棉花生长的不同时期的影响，并提出对策建议。     

重力波对一次雹暴天气过程演变的影响

利用北京地区雷达、风廓线仪和稠密的自动站观测资料,对2005年5月31日午后多次出现雹暴现象的飑线天气过程进行了中小尺度诊断研究,揭示了雹暴系统的发生、发展和再生过程与地面气象要素分布之间的关系,重点分析了重力波对雹暴单体、雹暴群演变、移动的影响.结果表明:(1)在有利于强对流发生的大气环流背景下,由地形、强雹暴产生的重力波,不仅催生新的风暴单体,而且对风暴单体的移动、发展或减弱产生直接影响;(2)不同强迫源(地形、强雹暴)引发的、具有不同振幅、波长和波动周期的中尺度重力波之间通过复杂的相互作用过程对多个风暴单体的演变产生了重要影响,有利于雹暴群的形成.     

Stochastic Modeling of the Effects of Large-Scale Circulation on Daily Weather in the Southeastern U.S.

Statistical methodology is devised to model time series of daily weather at individual locations in the southeastern U.S. conditional on patterns in large-scale atmosphere–ocean circulation. In this way, weather information on an appropriate temporal and spatial scale for input to crop–climate models can be generated, consistent with the relationship between circulation and temporally and/or spatially aggregated climate data (an exercise sometimes termed `downscaling'). The Bermuda High, a subtropical Atlantic circulation feature, is found to have the strongest contemporaneous correlation with seasonal mean temperature and total precipitation in the Southeast (in particular, stronger than for the El Niño–Southern Oscillation phenomenon). Stochastic models for time series of daily minimum and maximum temperature and precipitation amount are fitted conditional on an index indicating the average position of the Bermuda High. For precipitation, a multi-site approach involving a statistical technique known as `borrowing strength' is applied, constraining the relationship between daily precipitation and the Bermuda High index to be spatially the same. In winter (the time of greatest correlation), higher daily maximum and minimum temperature means and higher daily probability of occurrence of precipitation are found when there is an easterly shift in the average position of the Bermuda High. Methods for determining aggregative properties of these stochastic models for daily weather (e.g., variance and spatial correlation of seasonal total precipitation) are also described, so that their performance in representing low frequency variations can be readily evaluated.     

东湖水库对济南机场气象条件的可能影响评估

根据局地气候理论、文献资料、实际对比观测数据结果及济南机场气象站统计资料等，结合实践经验，进行东湖水库工程对济南机场气象条件的可能影响评估，得出定性、定量分析结论，为工程规划设计部门提供决策参考依据。     

天气变化影响人体健康的信息与预报

为探讨天气变化与人类健康的关系,预报影响人体健康的疾病信息,在统计天气变化与慢性疾病发病关系的基础上,推导出了日平均气温与哮喘、癌症、脑血管疾病、呼吸系统疾病四种疾病的数学表达式。结合利用业务预报的气温要素值与天气形势,对影响人体健康的天气信息作出预报,并通过“221”等声讯媒体服务于首都百姓。这一实践结果表明,天气变化影响人体健康的信息与预报的问世,为北京地区的群众防病和提高健康水平发挥了一定的作用。     

Impact of ENSO-Related Climate Anomalies on Crop Yields in the U.S.

Historical daily thermal and precipitation data from selected stations across the United States are composited into climate scenarios for the three phases of ENSO: Warm Events (El Niño), Cold Events (El Viejo or La Niña), and Neutral. Using these scenarios, yields of 7 field crops were simulated using the EPIC biophysical model during the one-year period coincident with maximum SST anomalies in the equatorial Pacific. The response of simulated agricultural productivity to the ENSO-related climate-variability parameters, is presented. A sensitivity calculation confirms the relevance of precipitation totals/medians and suggests ENSO-related yields are sensitive to changes in statistical properties characterizing precipitation distribution and occurrence. Results are spatially dependent, with the southwest and northern plains regions indicating the highest sensitivity to the inclusion of additional precipitation characteristics. The southeast yields are not as sensitive. The yield deviations (expressed as normalized differences to neutral yields) associated with the two extreme ENSO phases (Warm Events and Cold Events) are spatially and crop dependent with ranges up to ±120%. The largest yield deviations are in the south, southwest, and northern plains. Overall, Cold Events demonstrate larger impacts in the southern regions and Warm Events have a larger impact in the north. Additionally, the notion that climate anomalies associated with Cold and Warm Events and subsequent impacts on yields should be of opposite sign (i.e., linear) is not valid in many regions. For the eastern half of the U.S., modeled yield deviations under Warm Event conditions are nearly all less than neutral. Conversely, in the western half, results are more mixed. Under Cold Event conditions, yields in the east are enhanced in the south, but worsened in the north; while in the western half, yields have decreased in general. The results highlight the critical role of climate and production-related data on station or county levels in quantifying the impact of ENSO climate anomalies on yields. Both the diverse nature of the ENSO-related yield deviations as well as their sensitivity to monthly frequency distribution and occurrence characteristics imply that ENSO-related seasonal precipitation forecasts might be beneficial for agricultural application only if details were provided regarding not only totals, but also predicted changes in temporal and spatial variability of a more comprehensive suite of characteristics.     

National Inventories of Terrestrial Carbon Sources and Sinks: The U.K. Experience

The U.K. has extensive databases on soils, land cover and historic land use change which have made it possible to construct a comprehensive inventory of the principal terrestrial sources and sinks of carbon for approximately the year 1990, using methods that are consistent with, and at least as accurate as, the revised 1996 guidelines recommended by IPCC where available – and including categories which are not currently considered under the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change. This country inventory highlights issues concerning methodology, uncertainty, double counting, the importance of soils and the relative magnitude of sources and sinks which are reported to the UNFCCC relative to other sources and sinks. The carbon sinks (negative values in MtC a^-1) for categories reported to the UNFCCC, based on the IPCC categories, were estimated to be: forest trees and litter (–2.1), U.K. forest products (–0.5, ignoring imports and exports), non-forest biomass (–0.3), forest soils (–0.1) and soils on set-aside land (–0.4). The carbon sources (positive values) reported under the UNFCCC were estimated to be: losses of soil organic carbon resulting from cultivation of semi-natural land (6.2) and from urbanization (1.6), drainage of peatlands (0.3) and fenlands (0.5), and peat extraction (0.2). A range of other sources and sinks not covered by the IPCC guidelines were also quantified, namely, the accumulation of carbon in undrained peatlands (–0.7, ignoring methane emission), sediment accretion in coastal marshes (–0.1), the possible U.K. share of the CO₂ and N fertilization carbon sink (–2.0) and riverine organic and particulate carbon export to the sea (1.4, which may be assumed to be a source if most of this carbon is released as CO₂ in the sea). All sinks totalled –6.2 and sources 10.2, giving a net flux to the atmosphere in 1990 of 4.0 MtC a^-1. Uncertainties associated with categories, mostly based on best guesses, ranged from ±15% for forest biomass and litter to ±60% for CO₂ and N fertilization.     

The Impact of Moist Physics on the Sensitive Area Identification for Heavy Rainfall Associated Weather Systems

The impact of moist physics on the sensitive areas identified by conditional nonlinear optimal perturbation(CNOP)is examined based on four typical heavy rainfall cases in northern China through performing numerical experiments with and without moist physics.Results show that the CNOP with moist physics identifies sensitive areas corresponding to both the lower-(850?700 hPa)and upper-level(300?100 hPa)weather systems,while the CNOP without moist physics fails to capture the sensitive areas at lower levels.The reasons for the CNOP peaking at different levels can be explained in both algorithm and physics aspects.Firstly,the gradient of the cost function with respect to initial perturbations peaks at the upper level without moist physics which results in the upper-level peak of the CNOP,while it peaks at both the upper and lower levels with moist physics which results in both the upper-and lower-level peaks of the CNOP.Secondly,the upper-level sensitive area is associated with high baroclinicity,and these dynamic features can be captured by both CNOPs with and without moist physics.The lower-level sensitive area is associated with moist processes,and this thermodynamic feature can be captured only by the CNOP with moist physics.This result demonstrates the important contribution of the initial error of lower-level systems that are related to water vapor transportation to the forecast error of heavy rainfall associated weather systems,which could be an important reference for heavy rainfall observation targeting.     

深圳市高影响天气的风廓线雷达特征

利用深圳多年风廓线雷达观测资料,分析了灰霾、大雾、高温、雷暴、台风、冷空气等高影响天气过程中的风廓线特征。结果表明风廓线雷达作为一种新型的探测工具,能够在垂直方向获取较高时间、空间分辨率的实时资料,为分析、预报预警高影响天气提供了新的资料和观测事实。不同的高影响天气风廓线特征各不相同。灰霾和高温以上空出现东北风为特征:大雾的水平、垂直方向分布与信噪比有关;雷暴等强对流天气具有明显的风垂直切变;热带气旋、西风槽和锋面等移动性天气系统,其风向、风速的垂直分布随时间有明显变化。     

The Impacts of Socioeconomic Development and Climate Change on Severe Weather Catastrophe Losses: Mid-Atlantic Region (MAR) and the U.S.

One strand of research relates the magnitude of severe weather disasters to climatic and human development factors; another highlights dramatic growth in catastrophe losses. However, there have been few attempts to put the two strands together. Here we use an explicit modeling framework to determine the contribution of climate variability relative to human factors in reported catastrophe losses. We then examine how future climate change can be expected to affect losses from natural disasters. Simultaneous regression models are constructed from three equations in which the dependent variables are U.S. flood loss, U.S. hurricane loss and U.S. catastrophe loss. Then two kinds of simulation under two climate change scenarios explore how climate change would affect losses. The climate change scenarios respectively project 13.5% and 21.5% increases in annual precipitation. The first simulation increases only the mean value of annual precipitation; the second simulation assumes that the mean and standard deviation of annual precipitation change in the same proportion. Results show that the growth in reported losses from weather-related natural disasters is due mainly to three socioeconomic factors: inflation, population growth and growth in per capita real wealth. However, weather variables such as precipitation and the number of hurricanes per period also clearly affect losses. The three stage least squares (3SLS) simultaneous equation model shows that a 1% increase in annual precipitation would enlarge catastrophe loss by as much as 2.8%. These findings are suggestive as planning signals to decision makers.     

Updated Precipitation Series for the U.K. and Discussion of Recent Extremes

We present an automated method for updating existing long-running precipitation series in near-real time. Our analyses confirm the trend towards significantly drier summers in the south-east of England and significantly wetter winters in the west of Scotland. In 2000 England and Wales saw the wettest April since records began in 1766 and record-breaking daily precipitation in several regions in October led to the wettest autumn on record.     

Impact of Turbulent Mixing in the Stratocumulus-Topped Boundary Layer on Numerical Weather Prediction

The impact of enhanced turbulent mixing induced by radiative cooling at the top of the stratocumulus-topped boundary layer (STBL) on numerical weather prediction is examined. An additional term involving top-down turbulent mixing via in-cloud radiative cooling is applied to the Yonsei University (YSU) planetary boundary layer (PBL) parameterization scheme using a top-down diffusivity profile and cloud-top entrainment. The modified scheme is evaluated in an advection fog case over the Yellow Sea of Korea using the Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model and in global medium-range forecasts using the Global/Regional Integrated Model system (GRIMs). In the fog case simulation, consideration of the additional top-down mixing parameterization in the YSU PBL simulates less formation and more rapid dispersion of the fog. As a result, the modified scheme simulates a drier and warmer boundary layer and a moister and cooler layer above the PBL. The modified algorithm also improves surface temperature prediction over the Yellow Sea accompanying early dissipation of the fog. In the global medium-range forecast experiment, the modified scheme simulates overall enhanced PBL mixing over the STBL in the tropics and subtropical ocean, showing drier and warmer regions near the surface and moister and cooler regions above the PBL, resulting in prediction of reduced low level cloud amount and increased downward shortwave radiation at the surface. The modified scheme appears to improve systematic bias in temperature and humidity in the lower troposphere compared to the control simulation.     

数字滤波方法在月尺度数值预报中的应用 I. 初始场滤波的作用

本工作将数字滤波方法用于T42L9谱模式的月预报实验。为了去除高频扰动误差的影响，保留对月预报有意义且可预报性较强的低频过程，用滤波器对观测资料的序列进行处理，得到10天以上的低频分量作为初始场进行预报。结果说明，与不进行滤波的控制实验相比，误差增长明显减慢，预报效果在10～20天时段内提高最显著。进一步分析表明，延伸预报效果随时间的变化主要是由其中低频分量的预报效果决定的。初始场滤波后预报效果的提高也主要是由于其低频分量报得更好，而在此低频背景下新产生出来的高频扰动误差也相应较小，因而总体的预报效果好于控制实验。而如果在控制实验预报后提取低频分量进行检验，则对逐日预报的改进不明显。经过初始场滤波后对1～10天至1～30天平均场的预报也有较显著的提高。对旬平均预报改进最大的是在第二个10天。对500 hPa环流形势的预报也更接近实际。本工作的结果说明，在中长期预报中如果能用适当的方法提取出低频过程的信息，则可望提高预报水平。     

影响公路路况气象要素分析及路况预报

给出了公路路况的定义及分级标准 ,利用烟台市 2 0 0 0年交通事故资料分析了降水、雾、高低温、大风等气象要素与公路路况的关系 ,用逐级判别法建立了公路路况等级气象预报方法 ,开展路况预报 ,进一步拓展气象服务领域。     

气候变暖对我国社会经济的影响

全球气候变暖目前已经成为人类越来越关注的社会问题。气象观测结果表明，2007年2月，中亚和东亚、欧洲大部、白令海峡及其附近地区、阿尔及利亚和澳大利亚大部气温明显偏高2℃以上，其中东亚部分地区和白令海峡附近地区显著偏高4℃～9℃。2006年冬季，我国大部地区气温较常年同期（-4．3℃）偏高1．9℃，为历史同期第二高值，其中黑龙江、吉林的部分地区偏高达4℃～6℃，     

一次“高影响天气”的弱降雪过程的数值研究

该文对2001年12月7日下午北京的一次弱降雪天气过程进行了诊断分析和数值模拟研究。诊断结果表明：北京地区由于受500 hPa小槽东移及850 hPa东移小高压后部带来的来自东海和南海的偏南暖湿气流共同影响,造成降雪。数值模拟结果显示：MM5模式对这次降雪过程具有较好的模拟能力,不仅模拟出了北京地区的降雪量,而且对这次过程大尺度背景场的演变、触发机制和水汽源有很好的表述。利用诊断分析和数值模拟结果,对这次弱降雪过程引起交通大阻塞的可能因素进行了探讨,说明建立城市预警系统的迫切性。     

青藏高原积雪异常与大气环流异常间关系分析

在参考前人对青藏高原积雪异常年的划分成果的基础上,初步确定出1957—2003年的典型积雪异常年。采用NCEP提供的全球144×73个格点1957—2003年前一年12月至当年5月100 hPa和500 hPa的月平均高度场资料,分析了青藏高原积雪异常与大气环流异常的相互关系,提出了大气环流异常影响青藏高原积雪异常可能的天气气候成因机制;应用三因子最优子集二级判别,建立了判别青藏高原积雪多雪年/少雪年的判别方程,作为客观、定量判断高原积雪异常的指标;结合初步确定的典型青藏高原积雪异常年,用得到的最优判别方程进行划分,并经反复论证后,确定出1957—2003年青藏高原积雪正常略多年和正常略少年。     

全球实施碳税政策对碳减排及世界经济的影响评估

该研究模拟了全球各区域2008-2050年的经济发展和碳排放状况,并将该模拟结果设定为基准情景。在基准情景中全球GDP随时间增长,而全球的碳排放同样表现出增长趋势。为了模拟碳税政策的减排效应及其对经济的影响,本文构建了其他3种碳税政策情景。情景1,将碳税收入作为一般性财政收入,此时全球升温减缓,世界碳排放下降显著,但中国、印度、俄罗斯、马来西亚和印度尼西亚等发展中国家经济发展严重受创,世界经济不均衡加剧。情景2,将各区域的碳税收入汇总之后按照比例统一分配,该情景下,世界碳减排规模较情景1略有下降,但世界各区域的经济较基准情景得到更好的发展。情景3,碳税税率随时间阶段性增长,此时,碳税政策对全球升温的控制更显著;世界各区域,尤其是发展中国家（地区）,经济增长更迅速。另外,碳税收入用来提升区域技术进步,在一定程度上促进了产业的优化升级。碳税政策与技术进步的协同减排政策,考虑了区域经济发展的不均衡性,兼顾了气候治理的公平性,是一种有效、可行的全球气候治理政策。