Geotechnical assessment of cut slopes in the landslide-prone Himalayas: rock mass characterization and simulation approach

Natural Hazards - The roadway networks serve as arteries for the ongoing socio-economic activities within the Himalayan region. The perilous conditions of geologically active and fragile terrain...     

Kinematics and internal deformation of granular slopes: insights from discrete element modeling

The kinematics and internal deformation of a failure mass during the flow-like moving off a slope were monitored and quantified with the particle flow method in this study. Two kinds of cases were investigated, noncohesive and cohesive granular slopes. Three different internal friction angles and cohesive strengths were considered to systematically investigate their effect on the kinematics and internal deformation of the failure mass. We analyzed the movement within the failure mass and concluded that the mass moves downwards in an undulating pattern. The slope surface topography changes from a straight line to curved lines with slope breaks in a convex geometry. In addition, dilatation within the failure mass, which deforms internally and heterogeneously, is strongly dependent on its mechanical properties. A larger mass moves downslope, and the mass moves faster and further in the model with lower internal friction and cohesion. The internal friction and cohesion have a positive impact on porosity and two-dimensional (or volumetric in 3D) strain within the failure mass.     

A multi-method approach to study the stability of natural slopes and landslide susceptibility mapping

In this paper, a multi-method approach for the assessment of the stability of natural slopes and landslide hazard mapping applied to the Dakar coastal region is presented. This approach is based on the effective combination of geotechnical field and laboratory works, of GIS, and of mechanical (deterministic and numerical) stability analysis. By using this approach, valuable results were gained regarding instability factors, landslide kinematics, simulation of slope failure and coastal erosion. This led to a thorough assessment and strong reduction in the subjectivity of the slope stability and hazard assessment and to the development of an objective landslide danger map of the SW coast of Dakar. Analysis of the results shows that the slides were influenced by the geotechnical properties of the soil, the weathering, the hydrogeological situation, and the erosion by waves. The landslide susceptibility assessment based on this methodological approach has allowed for an appropriate and adequate consideration of the multiple factors affecting the stability and the optimization of planning and investment for land development in the city.     

Spectral element analysis to evaluate the stability of long and steep slopes

This paper evaluates the stability of long and steep slopes examining the effect of the critical length/depth ratio, L/H, and critical slope angle, β _cr, by comparing the results of infinite slope equation with the spectral element method. In addition, the influence of uphill and downhill boundaries on stability of long and steep slopes is also evaluated in theoretical domains. As an example, this paper presents a stability analysis of long and steep vegetated and barren slopes in saturated and seismic conditions, and also evaluates the effectiveness of the infinite slope equation for those slopes. In the vegetated slopes, the root zone may not extend to the whole depth of slope, which may lead to overestimating the factor of safety by infinite slope equation. This paper examines the applicability of the infinite slope equation for infinitely long, steep, and shallow slope model by comparing the results of the spectral element method.     

Impact of seismic factors on landslide susceptibility zonation: a case study in part of Indian Himalayas

Landslides are one of the most widespread natural hazards in high mountain terrains such as the Himalayas, which are one of the youngest tectonically and seismically active mountain ranges in the world. The crustal movements along the longitudinal thrusts and transverse faults give rise to earthquakes and in turn initiate landslides in the region. In fact, in addition to various static factors causing landslides, earthquakes are one of the major causes of landslides. It is thus imperative to incorporate seismic factor also while carrying out landslide susceptibility zonation map preparation in a seismically active areas like Garhwal Himalayas. In this paper, a study on the effect of earthquakes on landslide susceptibility zonation has been demonstrated by taking Chamoli earthquake as an example.     

露天矿坑岩质边坡浸润线及稳定性研究分析

浸润线是露天矿坑岩质边坡的生命线。针对山东三山岛露天矿坑尾矿库高陡岩质边坡非恒定渗流问题,依据同一条浸润线不同渗流截面的渗流量相等以及不同浸润线同一截面的渗流量差值为库水位的增量建立平衡方程,求解浸润线方程的解,运用Seep/W进行模拟,将理论计算结果与模拟值进行对比,验证浸润线方程的正确性;同时将浸润线方程应用到工程实际中,将库水位监测数据进行曲线拟合,与观测孔数据结合分析浸润线位置的变化,运用ABAQUS流固耦合模型对尾矿库边坡的塑性区和安全系数进行分析。研究结果表明:浸润线方程的解与模拟值最大误差为0.01%,满足实际要求;浸润线观测孔数据与理论计算数据基本吻合,误差最大为0.75m,进一步证明理论可靠性;尾矿库水位的上升增加了塑性区范围,安全系数与尾矿库水位变化曲线为"V"字形,库水位为100m时,安全系数最低为1.06,处于极限平衡状态,同时应将库水位设定在-45m以下,为后期库水位设计提供依据。     

喜马拉雅山北坡冰碛湖坝温度特征及其对堤坝稳定的影响

堤坝稳定性是评价冰湖溃决危险性的重要指标, 而堤坝的温度特征与其稳定性密切相关. 基于2012年11月-2013年9月对西藏定结县龙巴萨巴湖冰碛坝的0~150 cm不同深度的温度观测数据, 分析冰碛坝地温变化特征及其影响. 结果显示: 冰碛坝表层(<20 cm)地温与气温变化一致, 温度日变化常出现白天为正温梯度而夜间为负温度梯度的特征, 全年日均梯度一般为负温梯度(上部温度高、下部温度低); 中层(20~100 cm)和深层(>100 cm)表现为冬季下层温度高于上层温度的正温梯度, 夏季下层温度低于上层的负温梯度逐渐加强, 但地温日变幅逐渐减弱; 中间层地温变化不到气温变化幅度的1/5~1/10; 深层地温无明显的日变化. 冰碛坝的消融率约为2.1 cm·d^-1, 夏季消融深度超过250 cm. 现有夏季消融深度对堤坝的稳定影响有限, 但是湖盆区如果持续升温, 冰碛坝冻土的年消融率和消融深度都将增大, 致使堤坝稳定性下降, 溃决风险增大.     

Finite element models to represent seismic activity of the Indian plate

Quantification of seismic activity is one of the most challenging problems faced by earthquake engineers in probabilistic seismic hazard analysis. Currently, this problem has been attempted using empirical approaches which are based on the regional earthquake recurrence relations from the available earthquake catalogue. However, at a specified site of engineering interest, these empirical models are associated with large number of uncertainties due to lack of sufficient data. Due to these uncertainties, engineers need to develop mechanistic models to quantify seismic activity. A wide range of techniques for modeling continental plates provides useful insights on the mechanics of plates and their seismic activity. Among the different continental plates, the Indian plate experiences diffused seismicity. In India, although Himalaya is regarded as a plate boundary and active region, the seismicity database indicates that there are other regions in the Indian shield reporting sporadic seismic activity. It is expected that mechanistic models of Indian plate, based on finite element method, simulate stress fields that quantify the seismic potential of active regions in India. This article explores the development of a finite element model for Indian plate by observing the simulated stress field for various boundary conditions, geological and rheological conditions. The study observes that the magnitude and direction of stresses in the plate is sensitive to these conditions. The numerical analysis of the models shows that the simulated stress field represents the active seismic zones in India.     

高边坡稳定性研究现状及发展展望

在分析研究国内外有关斜坡(尤其是高边坡)稳定性研究文献的基础上,对当前这一领域的研究现状作了简要评述,提出了今后的研究方向和复杂岩体高边坡稳定性研究的基本思路与方法。     

Analyses on granular mass movement mechanics and deformation with distinct element numerical modeling: implications for large-scale rock and debris avalanches

A large-scale avalanche of Earth material is modeled here as a granular flow using a distinct element numerical model PFC ^2D. Such failures occur in a variety of geological settings and are known to occur frequently over geologic time-scales transporting significant volumes of material basinward. Despite this, they remain poorly understood. The model used here begins with a listric failure, typical of the flank collapse of a volcanic cone, and describes the movement of an assembly of several thousand particles from failure to deposition. Within the model, each particle possesses its own material properties and interacts with its immediate neighbors and/or the basal boundary during emplacement. The general mechanics of the particle assembly are observed by monitoring the stresses, displacements, and velocities of distinct sections of the avalanche body. We monitor the avalanches’ energy regime (e.g., gravitational influence, energy dissipation by friction, kinetic energy evolution, and avalanche body strain). The addition of colored markers of varying geometry to the pre-failure avalanche was also used to make qualitative observations on the internal deformation that occurs during avalanche emplacement. A general stretching and thinning of the avalanche is observed. Monitoring of vertical and horizontal variations in stress, strain, porosity, and relative particle stability indicate that the lower more proximal sections of the avalanche are subject to higher stresses. These stresses are observed to be most significant during the initial phases of failure but decline thereafter; a situation likely to be conducive to block fragmentation and in developing a basal shear layer in real-world events. The model also shows how an avalanche which is initially influenced purely by gravity (potential energy) develops into a fully flowing assemblage as downslope momentum is gained and kinetic energy increases. The horizontal transition where the failure meets the run-out surface is recognized as a key area in emplacement evolution. The model has particular relevance to volcanic flank collapses and consequently the implications of the model to these types of failure and the geological products that result are considered in detail although the model is relevant to any form of large-scale rock or debris avalanche.     

An approach for GIS-based statistical landslide susceptibility zonation—with a case study in the Himalayas

Landslide susceptibility zonation (LSZ) is necessary for disaster management and planning development activities in mountainous regions. A number of methods, viz. landslide distribution, qualitative, statistical and distribution-free analyses have been used for the LSZ studies and they are again briefly reviewed here. In this work, two methods, the Information Value (InfoVal) and the Landslide Nominal Susceptibility Factor (LNSF) methods that are based on bivariate statistical analysis have been applied for LSZ mapping in a part of the Himalayas. Relevant thematic maps representing various factors (e.g., slope, aspect, relative relief, lithology, buffer zones along thrusts, faults and lineaments, drainage density and landcover) that are related to landslide activity, have been generated using remote sensing and GIS techniques. The LSZ derived from the LNSF method, has been compared with that produced from the InfoVal method and the result shows a more realistic LSZ map from the LNSF method which appears to conform to the heterogeneity of the terrain.     

Finite element study of the Nevis Bluff (New Zealand) rock slope failure

SummaryFinite Element Study of the Nevis Bluff (New Zealand) Rock Slope Failure In June 1975, part of the Nevis Bluff rock slope failed along State Highway 6 in the South Island of New Zealand. The slope is near the bottom of the Kawarau River valley, which has been deeply entrenched in chlorite schist rocks. The detailed geology of the slope, and the mechanical properties of the rocks comprising the slope are described. For the purposes of finite element modelling, the schist was assumed to be a transversely isotropic material with four independent deformability parameters. A two dimensional finite element program was used to establish the regional state of stress, the results from which were then used in a larger scale model of the rock slope. The results of finite element analyses suggested that slope failure occurred by flexural toppling, where continuous columns broke in flexure as they slid along schistosity surfaces. Flexural cracking was then responsible for propagating the plane along which sliding occurred. When the shear strength available along this plane was exceeded by shear stresses, the slope failed.

---

ZusammenfassungUntersuchung des Bruches eines Felshanges des Nevis Bluff (Neuseeland) mit Hilfe der Methode der Finiten Elemente Im Juni 1975 brach ein Teil des Felshanges von Nevis Bluff entlang der Autobahn 6 auf der Südinsel von Neuseeland. Die Rutschung ereignete sich nahe des Talbodens des Flusses Kawarau, welcher sehr tief in Chloritschiefer eingeschnitten ist. Die detaillierte Geologie dieser Rutschung und die mechanischen Eigenschaften der dabei wirksamen Felspartien werden beschrieben. Im Hinblick auf eine Untersuchung des Rutschvorganges mit Hilfe der Methode der Finiten Elemente wurde das schiefrige Medium als transversal isotropes Medium mit vier voneinander unabhängigen Verformungsparametern angenommen. Für die Ermittlung des primären Spannungszustandes wurde ein zweidimensionales Finite-Elemente-Programm benützt. Die Ergebnisse dieser Untersuchung wurden dann in einem erweiterten Rechenmodell für die Hangrutschung verwendet. Die Ergebnisse der Untersuchung zeigten, daß die Rutschung auf einen Mechanismus ähnlich dem Hakenwerfen zurückzuführen sein dürfte, wobei bei diesem Vorgang durchgehende Platten durch Biegung zum Bruch kamen, als sie auf den Schieferungsflächen abglitten. Biegerisse waren die Ursache für die Ausbildung einer durchgehenden Gleitfläche. Sobald die Scherfestigkeit in dieser Gleitfläche überschritten wurde, kam der Hang zu Bruch.

---

RésuméÉtude de la rupture de pente rocheuse de Nevis Bluff par la méthode d'éléments finis En juin 1975, une partie de la paroi rocheuse de Nevis Bluff, le long de la route nationale 6 en Nouvelle Zélande s'est éffondrée. La pente est près du fond de la vallée de la rivière Kawarau qui s'est profondément encaissée dans des schistes chloritiques. La géologie détaillée de la paroi et les propriétés mécaniques des roches constitutives sont décrites. Pour la modélisation par éléments finis, le schiste a été supposé se comporter comme un matériau orthotrope avec quatre paramètres de déformation. L'utilisation d'un programme d'éléments finis bidimensionnels a permis d'établir l'état de contrainte régional qui fut transféré à un modèle de la paroi rocheuse de plus grande échelle. Les résultats de l'analyse par éléments finis suggèrent que la rupture a en lieu par fauchage des couches dans lequel des colonnes continues se fissurent en flexion à mesure qu'elles glissent le long de surfaces de schistosité vers l'ouverture. Les fissures de flexion se sont approfondies jusqu'à former un plan sur lequel le glissement a eu lieu. Quand la résistance au cisaillement le long de ce plan a été dépassée par les contraintes de cisaillement, la paroi s'est éffondrée.

---

---

With 16 Figures     

Assessment of discontinuous rock slope stability with block theory and numerical modeling: a case study for the South Pars Gas Complex,Assalouyeh, Iran

In this study, a geotechnical model has been used to analyze the stability of a discontinuous rock slope. The main idea behind block theory is that it disregards many different combinations of discontinuities and directly identifies and considers critical rock blocks known as “key blocks”. The rock slope used as a case study herein is situated in the sixth phase of the gas flare site of the South Pars Gas Complex, Assalouyeh, Iran. In order to analyze the stability of discontinuous rock slopes, geotechnical modeling which was divided into geometrical sub-modeling and mechanical sub-modeling has been utilized. This model has been established upon the KGM (key-group method) algorithm which was based on the limit equilibrium method and block theory and prepared and coded by the Mathematica software. According to the results of the stability analysis, the analyzed slope was determined to be in the category of “needs attention,” and the security level, calculated through the FORM (first-order reliability method) analysis, was estimated to be 1.16. In order to verify the model, the results obtained from the model were compared with those of the UDEC software, which is a numerical method based on distinct components. As a conclusion, it was determined that the results of the model agreed well with those of the numerical method.     

Geotechnical assessments of the stability of slopes at the Cakmakkaya and Damar open pit mines (Turkey): a case study

The on-site observations, monitoring data, and results of back analyses of failures showed that large-scale failures occurred along both the interconnected sliding surfaces, consisting of (a) discontinuities in the dacites and the contact zone and (b) the circular surfaces through the weathered soil-like dacites at the Cakmakkaya and Damar open pit mines. Surface water infiltration through the weathered soil-like material after a short duration of rainfall contributed to the circular-shaped failures. After a heavy rainy period, an increase in the groundwater table above the contact zone played a major role in the initiation of bi-planar wedge failures. In addition, the stability of the slopes is likely to have been controlled by the orientation of this zone. The results of back analyses indicated that the shear strengths of the soil-like materials in the weathered dacites and the contact zone had reduced to their residual values at the time of initial sliding. The flattening of the slope angles with an effective surface drainage and long-term monitoring of the groundwater level is proposed as the most suitable remedial measure.     

A polygon-based modeling approach to assess exposure of resources and assets to wildfire

Spatially explicit burn probability modeling is increasingly applied to assess wildfire risk and inform mitigation strategy development. Burn probabilities are typically expressed on a per-pixel basis, calculated as the number of times a pixel burns divided by the number of simulation iterations. Spatial intersection of highly valued resources and assets (HVRAs) with pixel-based burn probability estimates enables quantification of HVRA exposure to wildfire in terms of expected area burned. However, statistical expectations can mask variability in HVRA area burned across all simulated fires. We present an alternative, polygon-based formulation for deriving estimates of HVRA area burned. This effort enhances investigations into spatial patterns of fire occurrence and behavior by overlaying simulated fire perimeters with mapped HVRA polygons to estimate conditional distributions of HVRA area burned. This information can be especially useful for assessing risks where cumulative effects and the spatial pattern and extent of area burned influence HVRA response to fire. We illustrate our modeling approach and demonstrate application across real-world landscapes for two case studies: first, a comparative analysis of exposure and area burned across ten municipal watersheds on the Beaverhead-Deerlodge National Forest in Montana, USA, and second, fireshed delineation and exposure analysis of a geographically isolated and limited area of critical wildlife habitat on the Pike and San Isabel National Forests in Colorado, USA. We highlight how this information can be used to inform prioritization and mitigation decisions and can be used complementarily with more traditional pixel-based burn probability and fire intensity metrics in an expanded exposure analysis framework.     

Chemistry of perennial springs of Bhetagad watershed: a case study from central Himalayas,India

A field study was conducted to assess the location and the seasonal variation in physicochemical parameters of springs (outlets of underground water channels) of Bhetagad watershed of Uttaranchal hills, India. Traditionally, spring water is used for multiple purposes in this region. The average population density of the watershed is 366 persons km^?2, distributed within an altitudinal range of 1,090–2,060 m a.m.s.l. and 23.52 km² area. Twelve springs, in three different land uses e.g. pine forest, rainfed agriculture near settlements and irrigated agriculture near settlements were monitored in the winter (January), summer (June) and monsoon (August) during 1998 and 1999. The water quality parameters selected, in the present study are pH, EC, TDS, DO, free CO₂, total hardness, Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺, CO₃^2?, HCO₃^?, Cl^-, NO₃^? and SO₄^2? ions. Some springs in pine forests exhibit lower pH values than the permissible limit. Springs, with their location in agriculture and settlement, show slightly higher EC than the springs in pine forests. All the springs, near the irrigated agricultural land recorded higher nitrate ion concentration.     

Aridity indices to assess desertification susceptibility: a methodological approach using gridded climate data and cartographic modeling

Natural Hazards - Desertification is a land degradation phenomenon with dire and irreversible consequences, affecting different regions of the world. Assessment of spatial climate susceptibility to...     

GIS based groundwater modeling study to assess the effect of artificial recharge: A case study from Kodaganar river basin,Dindigul district,Tamil Nadu

Groundwater is a dynamic and replenishable natural resource. The numerical modeling techniques serve as a tool to assess the effect of artificial recharge from the water conservation structures and its response with the aquifers under different recharge conditions. The objective of the present study is to identify the suitable sites for artificial recharge structures to augment groundwater resources and assess its performance through the integrated approach of Geographic Information System (GIS) and numerical groundwater modeling techniques using MODFLOW software for the watershed located in the Kodaganar river basin, Dindigul district, Tamil Nadu. Thematic layers such as geology, geomorphology, soil, runoff, land use and slope were integrated to prepare the groundwater prospect and recharge site map. These potential zones were categorized as good (23%), moderate (54%), and poor (23%) zones with respect to the assigned weightage of different thematic layers. The major artificial recharge structures like percolation ponds and check dams were recommended based on the drainage morphology in the watershed. Finally, a threelayer groundwater flow model was developed. The model was calibrated in two stages, which involved steady and transient state condition. The transient calibration was carried out for the time period from January 1989 to December 2008. The groundwater model was validated after model calibration. The prediction scenario was carried out after the transient calibration for the time period of year up to 2013. The results show that there is 15 to 38% increase in groundwater quantity due to artificial recharge. The present study is useful to assess the effect of artificial recharge from the proposed artificial structures by integrating GIS and groundwater model together to arrive at reasonable results.     

Changing debris flow activity after sudden sediment input: a case study from the Swiss Alps

On 27 December 2011, a rock avalanche in the upper Val Bondasca in the southern Swiss Alps deposited 1.5–1.7 million m³ of rock debris. The following summer, debris flow activity in Val Bondasca was unusually high with four events after a 90‐year period of debris flow inactivity. This was an exceptional situation for the valley. Analysing the 2012 events, the long‐term record of meteorological conditions such as rainfall intensity and duration, in comparison with debris flow activity, suggests that the meteorological conditions in summer 2012 would not have triggered the high intensity debris flow events without additional sediment input. Consequently, the suddenly increased debris availability can be considered a major factor in these events. Interestingly, rainfall events of similar magnitude in the subsequent years 2013–2015 did not trigger additional debris flow events, indicating that debris flow initiation thresholds are increasing again, back towards pre‐rock avalanche levels. This study aims to help in understanding the so far poorly understood temporal evolution of debris flow triggering thresholds and the effect of sudden changes in sediment availability.     

平面剪切岩质边坡滑裂面的确定及稳定性分析

由于传统搜索方法对岩质边坡滑裂面的确定无法兼顾效率与精度,如何迅速准确确定潜在滑裂面仍然是个难题.极限平衡法在岩质边坡稳定性分析中备受认可,采用岩质边坡平面剪切滑动模型,以滑裂面的倾角来表征潜在滑裂面的位置;基于极值法,推导了极限平衡条件下平面剪切破坏型岩质边坡潜在滑裂面的解析解,并结合香港秀茂坪路边坡对其准确性进行了...