Property insurance against debris-flow disasters based on risk assessment and the principal–agent theory

Dongchuan City is highly threatened by debris-flow disasters originating from Shengou gully, a typical debris-flow gully along Xiaojiang River in Yunnan Province (Kang et al. 2004). Shengou gully is studied, and a hazard assessment with numerical simulation is developed using ArcGIS 9.2 software. Debris-flow numerical simulation is an important method for predicting debris-flow inundation regions, zoning debris-flow risks, and helping in the design of debris-flow control works. Meanwhile, vulnerability measurement is essential for hazard and risk research. Based on the self-organized map neural network method, we combine the six vulnerability indicators to create an integrated debris-flow vulnerability map that depicts the vulnerability levels of Dongchuan City in Shengou Basin. Based on the risk assessment (including hazard assessment and vulnerability assessment), we adopt the principal–agent theory and use the risk degree of debris flows as an important index to build the insurance model and analyze the insurance premium of debris-flow disasters in Dongchuan City. This paper discusses the model and mechanism of property insurance in debris-flow risk regions and aims to provide technical support for insurance companies to participate in disaster prevention and reduction.     

高山峡谷区地质灾害危险性评价

针对崩塌、滑坡和泥石流等灾种齐全的高山峡谷区,选取四川省阿坝县为研究区,采用多灾种耦合的评价思路,开展地质灾害危险性精细化评价。崩塌、滑坡等斜坡类灾害危险性评价以栅格为评价单元,泥石流灾害危险性评价以流域为评价单元。基于信息量模型和层次分析法,分别开展危险性评价,进而采用取大值的方法,获取研究区综合地质灾害危险性评价结果。研究表明,工作区综合地质灾害极高危险区、高危险区面积明显大于单灾种评价结果,极高危险区、高危险区主要位于崩塌、滑坡较发育的碎裂岩区域和极度易发的泥石流流域。针对高山峡谷区地质灾害危险性评价,多灾种耦合的评价思路能更合理的反映不同类型灾害在形态及空间上的差异,获取更精确的危险性评价结果。     

泥石流作用下建筑物易损性评价方法分析与评价

建筑物易损度评价作为泥石流易损度评价的重要组成部分,其研究是实现城镇及居民点泥石流风险定量化和风险管理的必要环节。综述近30年来,泥石流作用下建筑物易损度研究的发展过程,并指出以统计分析方法建立的建筑物易损度曲线普适性差且力学机理不明等问题,提出数值计算和模型实验的手段获取建筑物结构易损度的机理模型。由于建筑物易损度研究问题本身的复杂性,统计分析方法仍将作为建筑物易损度研究的重要手段,力学机理明晰的研究方法则将成为今后研究的难点和热点。此外,地震、滚石、雪崩等类似灾种的易损度研究方法和成果可被借鉴到泥石流领域。针对灾害中因结构破坏引发人员伤亡的情况,建议采用时间概率和基于条件概率的事件树方法计算建筑物内人员易损度。最终形成综合结构和人员易损度研究成果的建筑物易损度评价方法。     

Hazard regionalization of debris-flow disasters along highways in China

Regional differences in China’s natural landscape involve significant differences in the distributions of debris-flow disasters along highways (DFDHs), which makes it very difficult to forecast, identify, and provide early warnings for such disasters. Previous research mainly focused on single-gully debris-flow disasters or a number of debris-flow disasters with similar morphological characteristics, which could not reflect the inherent mechanisms leading to the occurrence of DFDHs. Hazard regionalization of DFDHs in China can clarify the priorities and protection standards for different areas in China, and provide a theoretical basis for macro-policy formulation. We identify the hazard sources of DFDHs, extract hazard assessment indicators, and calculate the weight of each indicator using a cloud model-improved analytic hierarchy process. We draw basic maps of assessment indicators and perform a spatial analysis of hazard of DFDHs using ArcGIS, and a hazard regionalization scheme for DFDHs in China is developed. The results show that the degree of hazard of DFDHs in China ranges from 1.000 to 7.900. China is divided into low, moderate, severe, and extremely severe hazard areas. The extremely severe hazard areas are the Loess Plateau (north part of the QinBa Mountain area), the Taiwan–Wuyi Mountain area, the Sichuan–Yunnan Mountain area, and the Tianshan–Kunlun Mountain area.     

Comparison of numerical models of two debris flows in the Cortina d’ Ampezzo area,Dolomites, Italy

The accurate prediction of runout distances, velocities and the knowledge of flow rheology can reduce the casualties and property damage produced by debris flows, providing a means to delineate hazard areas, to estimate hazard intensities for input into risk studies and to provide parameters for the design of protective measures. The application of most of models that describe the propagation and deposition of debris flow requires detailed topography, rheological and hydrological data that are not always available for the debris-flow hazard delineation and estimation. In the Cortina d’Ampezzo area, Eastern Dolomites, Italy, most of the slope instabilities are represented by debris flows; 325 debris-flow prone watersheds have been mapped in the geomorphological hazard map of this area. We compared the results of simulations of two well-documented debris flows in the Cortina d’Ampezzo area, carried on with two different single-phase, non-Newtonian models, the one-dimensional DAN-W and the two-dimensional FLO-2D, to test the possibility to simulate the dynamic behaviour of a debris flow with a model using a limited range of input parameters. FLO-2D model creates a more accurate representation of the hazard area in terms of flooded area, but the results in terms of runout distances and deposits thickness are similar to DAN-W results. Using DAN-W, the most appropriate rheology to describe the debris-flow behaviour is the Voellmy model. When detailed topographical, rheological and hydrological data are not available, DAN-W, which requires less detailed data, is a valuable tool to predict debris-flow hazard. Parameters obtained through back-analysis with both models can be applied to predict hazard in other areas characterized by similar geology, morphology and climate.     

Comparative Analysis of Risk Assessment of Landslides and Debris Flows of China in 2000 and 2010

Landslides and debris flows occurr in China frequently and cause disastrous losses of life and property. The risk assessment of landslides and debris flows and their spatial variations were comparatively analyzed in this paper, which has great significance for disaster prevention. This article selected 1 km×1 km grid as the assessment unit and with support of GIS technique, analyzed landslide and debris-flow risk distribution and their spatial variations from 2000 to 2010. The research results indicated that the spatial distribution of risk classes in 2000 and 2010 was obviously discrepant. Overall, taking the Heihe-Tengchong population density line as the boundary, the west of the line is mainly low risk area; the east of the line is mainly high risk area. Compared with the risk of 2000, the risk values of 2010 increased, with the high risk area and low risk area enlarged, moderate risk area reduced. The moderate risk area is the most unstable and sensitive risk area, and its risk class variation is significant. However, China is not a region with the high risk of landslide and debris-flow hazard at present. In the following next 10 years, the risk of landslides and debris flows in China will continue to increase.     

Assessing debris-flow hazard in a watershed in Taiwan

This paper presents the results of a pilot study for assessing debris-flow hazards using geographic information system (GIS) techniques. The watershed of the Chen-Yu-Lan River is investigated in this pilot study. Factors that are believed to be critical to the occurrence of debris flow are identified and considered in the assessment of debris-flow hazards. Using the spatial analysis feature of GIS, the impact of these factors, expressed in terms of debris-flow hazard (DH) index, is calculated. By taking a simple summation of all DH indexes according to each factor, the overall debris-flow hazard at a particular watershed may be assessed. The applicability of the proposed approach for analyzing the watershed of the Chen-Yu-Lan River has been confirmed with the field observations in a recent typhoon event.     

适宜尺度区间上的多尺度区域泥石流危险性评价

泥石流灾害及其孕灾环境具有高阶模糊性,现有的模型和方法在表示和分析泥石流灾害时存在明显的尺度效应。首先提出了我国泥石流危险性评价的尺度模型,通过尺度分析的方法分析了孕灾因子的适宜尺度区间。然后基于区间II-型模糊集表示孕灾因子的高阶模糊隶属度,以此描述泥石流及其孕灾环境的复杂性;以区间权重描述各孕灾因子的重要性,并提出了适宜尺度区间上的危险性评价方法。试验表明,这种方法能够克服许多单尺度分析方法的缺陷,在泥石流危险性评价过程中能充分利用孕灾因子在适宜尺度区间上的可能状态,能顾及专家的对孕灾因子重要性评价的不确定性,评价结果比较客观。     

基于RS及GIS的泥石流等地质灾害三维定量评价

随着泥石流等地质灾害的频繁发生,定量分析灾害发生的风险性已经成为越来越重要的课题。综合运用RS（遥感）和GIS（地理信息系统）等技术,对地质灾害数据进行采集、存储、检索、建模、分析,以期定量评价灾害发生的风险性,并以此作为参考,给泥石流等灾害可能发生的地区提出合理建议。     

云南省东川市深沟泥石流堆积动态模拟及减灾效益评估

笔者以云南省东川市深沟泥石流为研究对象，根据质量守恒和动量守恒原理，建立了泥石流堆积过程数学模型，运用数值方法的有限差分原理求解，并针对泥石流运动的实际特征，模拟其堆积动态过程。以此结果为基础，分析评价了深沟泥石流灾害的危险范围和程度，结合分类统计评价危险区的各类资产价值，分析评估了在2％频率条件下可能造成的灾害损失，对比防灾工程措施及其造价进行效益分析，提出了有关对策建议。     

Empirical Relationships for Debris Flows

The assessment of the debris flow hazard potential has to rely on semi-quantitative methods. Due to the complexity of the debris-flow process, numerical simulation models of debris flows are still limited with regard to practical applications. Thus, an overview is given of empirical relationships that can be used to estimate the most important parameters of debris-flow behavior. In a possible procedure, an assessment of a maximum debris-flow volume may be followed by estimates of the peak discharge, the mean flow velocity, the total travel distance, and the runout distance on the fan. The applicability of several empirical equations is compared with available field and laboratory data, and scaling considerations are used to discuss the variability of the parameters over a large range of values. Some recommendations are made with regard to the application of the presented relationships by practicing engineers, apart from advocating field reconnaissance and searching for historic events wherever possible.     

Regional debris-flow distribution and preliminary risk assessment from severe storm events in the Appalachian Blue Ridge Province,USA

Storms of high-intensity rainfall, including hurricanes, occur about once every 3 years in small areas of the mountains of the eastern United States posing a high debris-flow hazard. Reported casualties and monetary losses are often an insufficient and inadequate means for comparing the impact from debris flows. A simple GIS technique was used to characterize the distribution and density of debris flows for making a preliminary assessment of risk of impact on roads. This technique was used for comparison of three major severe storms resulting in numerous debris flows: August 10–17, 1940, near Deep Gap, North Carolina; August 19–20, 1969, in Nelson County, Virginia; and June 27, 1995, in Madison County, Virginia. Based on the criteria of the number of debris flows and area covered by debris flows, the August 19–20, 1969, Nelson County, Virginia, event was the most severe of the three storms and posed the greatest risk of debris-flow impact on roads.     

泥石流致灾因子敏感性分析——以四川都江堰龙溪河流域为例

泥石流是我国山区常见的地质灾害,为了定量研究泥石流灾害致灾因子的敏感性并确定各个致灾因子的权重大小,本文通过野外调查、数理统计法和层次分析法对龙溪河流域泥石流灾害的主要致灾因子进行定性规律分析和定量权重计算。结果表明:（1）泥石流灾害的发生与致灾因子的敏感性区间主要定性表现为:流域面积小于1 km2以内、高差在200~400 m范围内、距断层距离为0~2 km、山坡坡度30°~50°、岩性为砂岩、纵比降在400‰~600‰等,其泥石流发生与致灾因子具有相关性,且相关性较好;（2）选取了泥石流灾害致灾因子中的历史因子、地形因子、地质因子和降雨因子等4个一级因子以及流域面积、高程、相对高差、纵坡比、地层岩性等14个二级因子建立层次分析模型和计算判断矩阵,定量计算权重值得出降雨,流域面积,地层岩性,纵比降等四个因子对泥石流发生的敏感性最强。这一结论具有普遍性,可对该区域泥石流的易发性,危险性,风险性评价提供一定的数据参考意义。     

Debris flood risk assessment for Mosquito Creek, British Columbia, Canada

Mosquito Creek drains a 15.5 km² watershed on the North Shore Mountains north of Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, and flows through the densely urbanized District and then City of North Vancouver. Previous studies determined that the creek is subject to debris floods (hyperconcentrated flows). The National Research Council of Canada is applying multi-hazard risk assessment procedures for various regions in B.C. and chose Mosquito Creek as one of its target areas. As part of its natural hazard management plan, the District of North Vancouver (DNV) requested an assessment of debris flood hazards and associated risk to life. Using a combination of empirical methods, dendrochronology and some judgment, BGC Engineering Inc. assessed debris flood hazard extent, velocity and depth for estimated 100-, 200-, 500- and 2,500-year debris flow return periods. Based on the results from the hazard assessment, risk for individuals and groups living within the hazard area, including residential homes and a fire hall, was estimated. Compared to risk tolerance criteria accepted on an interim basis by the DNV, we estimate that societal risk exceeds tolerable standards and that individual risk exceeds tolerable standards for 10 homes. The results from the risk to loss of life study have prompted DNV to implement a series of risk reduction measures including installation of a debris containment net and watershed restoration measures.     

Assessment of Risk due to Debris Flow Events: A Case Study in Central Taiwan

In this paper, based on the concepts of uncertainty and reliability analyses, a method used for assessment of risk due to debris flow events is proposed. First, procedures for obtaining the configuration of debris-flow fans are presented. Then, the parameters affecting the configuration of debris-flow fans are identified and their corresponding means and standard deviations are derived. Finally, the proposed method is applied to the Shih-Pa-Chung Creek in central Taiwan. The expected deposition thickness at any point in the deposition area is computed and then the contours of risk for the 50-year and 100-year events are constructed. Regarding the expected deposition thickness, it is found that the closer the distance from the canyon mouth, the larger the debris-flow thickness becomes. The results also show that the contours of risk are of the shape of an ellipse similar to the shape of deposition area, and the risk at a point decreases with increasing distance of that point from the canyon mouth. In addition, when the return period of rainfall event is fixed, the variation in risk decreases as the distance from the canyon mouth increases. For the assessment of risk due to debris flow events, the proposed method is recommended as an alternative to the existing methods, because the influence of all the uncertainty of the parameters is considered.     

Debris flows in the Lushan earthquake area: formation characteristics,rainfall conditions,and evolutionary tendency

Debris flows often occur in the mountainous watersheds of earthquake-affected areas, and in the Lushan earthquake area of southwestern China, they have become a significant hazard. In this study, the influencing factors and spatial distribution of debris flows were analyzed through a review of their occurrence history. Debris flows are mainly distributed in the northwestern part of the study area, which hosts the greatest density of active faults. The debris flows are generally formed by the ‘progressive bulking’ effect in channels, and deep incision, lateral erosion, and blockage breaking are common processes that amplify the magnitude of such debris flows. Rainfall thresholds for different types of debris flow were proposed to explain the spatial differences between debris-flow regions, and the temporal variations of those thresholds highlighted how the rainfall conditions required for the occurrence of debris flows have changed. Natural vegetation recovery, reduction in the availability of solid material, and artificial debris-flow control projects play important roles in raising the threshold of the rainfall conditions required for triggering debris flows.

     

Evaluation of approaches to calculate debris-flow parameters for hazard assessment

Many different runout prediction methods can be applied to estimate the mobility of future debris flows during hazard assessment. The present article reviews the empirical, analytical, simple flow routing and numerical techniques. All these techniques were applied to back-calculate a debris flow, which occurred in 1982 at La Guingueta catchment, in the Eastern Pyrenees. A sensitivity analysis of input parameters was carried out, while special attention was paid to the influence of rheological parameters. We used the Voellmy fluid rheology for our analytical and numerical modelling, since this flow resistance law coincided best with field observations. The simulation results indicated that the “basal” friction coefficients rather affect the runout distance, while the “turbulence” terms mainly influence flow velocity. A comparison of the velocity computed on the fan showed that the analytical model calculated values similar to the numerical ones. The values of our rheological parameters calibrated at La Guingueta agree with data back-calculated for other debris flows. Empirical relationships represent another method to estimate total runout distance. The results confirmed that they contain an important uncertainty and they are strictly valid only for the conditions, which were the basis for their development. With regards to the simple flow routing algorithm, this methods could satisfactorily simulate the total area affected by the 1982 debris flow, but it was not able to directly calculate total runout distance and velocity. Finally, a suggestion on how different runout prediction methods can be applied to generate debris-flow hazard maps is presented. Taking into account the definition of hazard and intensity, the best choice would be to divide the resulting hazard maps into two types: “final hazard maps” and “preliminary hazard maps”. Only the use of numerical models provided final hazard maps, because they could incorporate different event magnitudes and they supplied output-values for intensity calculation. In contrast, empirical relationships and flow routing algorithms, or a combination of both, could be applied to create preliminary hazard maps. The present study only focussed on runout prediction methods. Other necessary tasks to complete the hazard assessment can be looked up in the “Guidelines for landslide susceptibility, hazard and risk zoning” included in this Special Issue.     

四川都江堰龙溪河流域泥石流成因、特征和危险性评价

在汶川地震影响下，截至2011年龙溪河流域共计有45条泥石流沟暴发泥石流，造成重大经济财产损失.在龙溪河流域泥石流灾害野外调查的基础上，对形成泥石流的地形、降水、物源成因进行了研究，认为物源和降水是激发龙溪河流域泥石流的主要原因.龙溪河流域泥石流具有群发性和小流域暴发性特征，构造带耦合特征，破坏性大和灾害链作用特征.采用MFCAM模型对龙溪河流域泥石流沟进行危险性评价，结果显示有1条沟危险性大，14条危险性中等，30条危险性小.     

四川都江堰龙溪河流域泥石流成因、特征和危险性评价

在汶川地震影响下,截至2011年龙溪河流域共计有45条泥石流沟暴发泥石流,造成重大经济财产损失.在龙溪河流域泥石流灾害野外调查的基础上,对形成泥石流的地形、降水、物源成因进行了研究,认为物源和降水是激发龙溪河流域泥石流的主要原因.龙溪河流域泥石流具有群发性和小流域暴发性特征,构造带耦合特征,破坏性大和灾害链作用特征.采用MFCAM模型对龙溪河流域泥石流沟进行危险性评价,结果显示有1条沟危险性大,14条危险性中等,30条危险性小.