Red/violet contrast reversal on Mars: Significance for eolian sediments

Albedo markings on Mars can exhibit reversed contrast with their surroudings when imaged in “red” and “violet” light. A complete search of Viking Orbiter images shows this phenomenon (on scales less than 300 km) is restricted to specific eolian features: intracrater deposits and wind streaks originating from the deposits. Contrast reversal is not found between features (such as lava flows of different ages) that might expose different materials without a largely eolian influence. Laboratory simulations suggest that iron oxides are the most likely materials involved in contrast reversal on the Martian surface. Red/violet contrast reversal is achieved easily (but not exclusively) between samples from which very fine particles (<5 μm) in diameter) have been removed, and corresponding samples in which larger grains are coated by such fine particles. Substantial particle-size-dependent albedo and color viriations exist for material which can be carried in suspension on Mars (<100 μm). Thus, all fine-grained eolian deposits on Mars need not be the same as the brighter parts of Arabia, which have colors and albedos similar to the fine (<10 μm) component of Martian dust storms. The observed contrast reversal characteristics and colors of the intracrater dunes and related sediments can be explained readily if they are essentially free of adhering dust, as would be the case if such eolian features were subject toactive saltation.     

Generation and emplacement of fine-grained ejecta in planetary impacts

We report here on a survey of distal fine-grained ejecta deposits on the Moon, Mars, and Venus. On all three planets, fine-grained ejecta form circular haloes that extend beyond the continuous ejecta and other types of distal deposits such as run-out lobes or ramparts. Using Earth-based radar images, we find that lunar fine-grained ejecta haloes represent meters-thick deposits with abrupt margins, and are depleted in rocks ?1 cm in diameter. Martian haloes show low nighttime thermal IR temperatures and thermal inertia, indicating the presence of fine particles estimated to range from ∼10 μm to 10 mm. Using the large sample sizes afforded by global datasets for Venus and Mars, and a complete nearside radar map for the Moon, we establish statistically robust scaling relationships between crater radius R and fine-grained ejecta run-out r^* for all three planets. On the Moon, r^* ∼ R^−0.18 for craters 5-640 km in diameter. For Venus, radar-dark haloes are larger than those on the Moon, but scale as r^* ∼ R^−0.49, consistent with ejecta entrainment in Venus’ dense atmosphere. On Mars, fine-ejecta haloes are larger than lunar haloes for a given crater size, indicating entrainment of ejecta by the atmosphere or vaporized subsurface volatiles, but scale as R^−0.13, similar to the ballistic lunar scaling. Ejecta suspension in vortices generated by passage of the ejecta curtain is predicted to result in ejecta run-out that scales with crater size as R^1/2, and the wind speeds so generated may be insufficient to transport particles at the larger end of the calculated range. The observed scaling and morphology of the low-temperature haloes leads us rather to favor winds generated by early-stage vapor plume expansion as the emplacement mechanism for low-temperature halo materials.     

HiRISE views enigmatic deposits in the Sirenum Fossae region of Mars

HiRISE images together with other recent orbital data from Mars define new characteristics of enigmatic Hesperian-aged deposits in Sirenum Fossae that are mostly 100-200 m thick, drape kilometers of relief, and often display generally low relief surfaces. New characteristics of the deposits, previously mapped as the “Electris deposits,” include local detection of meter-scale beds that show truncating relationships, a generally light-toned nature, and a variably blocky, weakly indurated appearance. Boulders shed by erosion of the deposits are readily broken down and contribute little to talus. Thermal inertia values for the deposits are ∼200 J m⁻² K⁻¹ s^−1/2 and they may incorporate hydrated minerals derived from weathering of basalt. The deposits do not contain anomalous amounts of water or water ice. Deflation may dominate degradation of the deposits over time and points to an inventory of fine-grained sediment. Together with constraints imposed by the regional setting on formation processes, these newly resolved characteristics are most consistent with an eolian origin as a loess-like deposit comprised of redistributed and somewhat altered volcanic ash. Constituent sediments may be derived from airfall ash deposits in the Tharsis region. An origin directly related to airfall ash or similar volcanic materials is less probable and emplacement by alluvial/fluvial, impact, lacustrine, or relict polar processes is even less likely.     

Chesapeake Bay impact structure: Morphology,crater fill,and relevance for impact structures on Mars

Abstract— The late Eocene Chesapeake Bay impact structure (CBIS) on the Atlantic margin of Virginia is one of the largest and best‐preserved “wet‐target” craters on Earth. It provides an accessible analog for studying impact processes in layered and wet targets on volatile‐rich planets. The CBIS formed in a layered target of water, weak clastic sediments, and hard crystalline rock. The buried structure consists of a deep, filled central crater, 38 km in width, surrounded by a shallower brim known as the annular trough. The annular trough formed partly by collapse of weak sediments, which expanded the structure to ?85 km in diameter. Such extensive collapse, in addition to excavation processes, can explain the “inverted sombrero” morphology observed at some craters in layered targets. The distribution of crater‐fill materials in the CBIS is related to the morphology. Suevitic breccia, including pre‐resurge fallback deposits, is found in the central crater. Impact‐modified sediments, formed by fluidization and collapse of water‐saturated sand and silt‐clay, occur in the annular trough. Allogenic sediment‐clast breccia, interpreted as ocean‐resurge deposits, overlies the other impactites and covers the entire crater beneath a blanket of postimpact sediments. The formation of chaotic terrains on Mars is attributed to collapse due to the release of volatiles from thick layered deposits. Some flat‐floored rimless depressions with chaotic infill in these terrains are impact craters that expanded by collapse farther than expected for similar‐sized complex craters in solid targets. Studies of crater materials in the CBIS provide insights into processes of crater expansion on Mars and their links to volatiles.     

Ionospheric photoelectrons: Comparing Venus, Earth, Mars and Titan

The sunlit portion of planetary ionospheres is sustained by photoionization. This was first confirmed using measurements and modelling at Earth, but recently the Mars Express, Venus Express and Cassini-Huygens missions have revealed the importance of this process at Mars, Venus and Titan, respectively. The primary neutral atmospheric constituents involved (O and CO₂ in the case of Venus and Mars, O and N₂ in the case of Earth and N₂ in the case of Titan) are ionized at each object by EUV solar photons. This process produces photoelectrons with particular spectral characteristics. The electron spectrometers on Venus Express and Mars Express (part of ASPERA-3 and 4, respectively) were designed with excellent energy resolution (ΔE/E=8%) specifically in order to examine the photoelectron spectrum. In addition, the Cassini CAPS electron spectrometer at Saturn also has adequate resolution (ΔE/E=16.7%) to study this population at Titan. At Earth, photoelectrons are well established by in situ measurements, and are even seen in the magnetosphere at up to 7R_E. At Mars, photoelectrons are seen in situ in the ionosphere, but also in the tail at distances out to the Mars Express apoapsis (∼3R_M). At both Venus and Titan, photoelectrons are seen in situ in the ionosphere and in the tail (at up to 1.45R_V and 6.8R_T, respectively). Here, we compare photoelectron measurements at Earth, Venus, Mars and Titan, and in particular show examples of their observation at remote locations from their production point in the dayside ionosphere. This process is found to be common between magnetized and unmagnetized objects. We discuss the role of photoelectrons as tracers of the magnetic connection to the dayside ionosphere, and their possible role in enhancing ion escape.     

Undercooled water in basaltic regoliths and implications for fluidized bebris flows on Mars

Experiments on the freezing of water in wet, sand-sized “basaltic” substrates confirmed that substantial degrees of undercooling can be achieved under conditions applicable to Mars when the substrate particles are relatively poor nucleators of ice (i.e., igneous minerals). This physical undercooling is independent of (but would be enhanced by) freezing-point depressions caused by soluble salts. Using differential scanning calorimetry, undercooling was studied in a carbon dioxide atmosphere as a function of soil particle size (silt- and sand-sized intervals), water/soil mass ratio (range of 0.1–1), and cooling rate (range of 0.5–10°K/min). Results for a clay-poor, glacial-outwash soil from Mauna Kea, Hawaii (with negligible salt content), showed that degree of undercooling is approximately independent of both soil particle size and water/soil mass ratio but varies with cooling rate. Undercoolings of 6–9°K were achieved for the Mauna Kea soil and undercoolings of 10–13°K were achieved for powdered whole-rock samples of peridotite, basalt, and a shergottite meteorite. Initial melting of the same icy materials occurred at temperatures that were 1–3°K lower than for melting of pure bulk ice. Undercooling of water below 273°K in debris flows composed of relatively unweathered “basaltic” sand on Mars should be expected to support fluid flow over greater distances than might otherwise be expected. Likewise, incipient melting and remobilization of the same icy debris might occur at temperatures below 273°K.     

Progress towards robotic in-situ dating of martian sediments using optically stimulated luminescence

Recent exploratory efforts to reveal the evolution and the climatic history of Mars have shown that the planet is still active. The surface of Mars has been, and continues to be, shaped by fluvial, eolian and glacial processes. The timeframe of these events is, however, poorly established. We describe efforts and challenges to adapt optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) dating for robotic in-situ dating of martian sediments. Mineral mixtures were devised as simulants of martian regolith. The single-aliquot regeneration (SAR) procedure was modified to enable the determination of the equivalent dose for polymineral samples. Low-temperature measurements and simulations indicate that known doses delivered at low temperatures can be effectively estimated as long as the stimulation temperature is greater than the highest temperature experienced during the initial irradiation. Bleaching experiments with a solar simulator suggest efficient zeroing of the OSL signal for solar-exposed sediments on Mars. Irradiations with proton and heavy-charged particles show a lower efficiency in luminescence production than that found for beta and gamma radiation.     

Atmospheric entry heating of micrometeorites at Earth and Mars: Implications for the survival of organics

The atmospheric entry heating of micrometeorites (MMs) can significantly alter their pre‐existing mineralogy, texture, and organic material. The degree of heating depends predominantly on the gravity and atmospheric density of the planet on which they fall. For particles falling on Earth, the alteration can be significant, leading to the destruction of much of the pre‐entry organics; however, the weaker gravity and thinner atmosphere of Mars enhance the survival of MMs and increase the fraction of particles that preserve organic material. This paper investigates the entry heating of MMs on the Earth and Mars in order to examine the MM population on each planet and give insights into the survival of extraterrestrial organic material. The results show that particles reaching the surface of Mars experience a lower peak temperature compared to Earth and, therefore, experience less evaporative mass loss. Of the particles which reach the surface, 68.2% remain unmelted on Mars compared to only 22.8% on Earth. Due to evaporative mass loss, unmelted particles that reach the surface of Earth are restricted to sizes <70 μm whereas particles >475 μm survive unmelted on Mars. Approximately 10% of particles experience temperatures below ~800 K, that is, the sublimation temperature of refractory organics found in MMs. On Earth, this fraction is significantly lower with less than 1% expected to remain below this temperature. Lower peak temperatures coupled with the larger sizes of particles surviving without significant heating on Mars suggest a much higher fraction of organic material surviving to the Martian surface.     

Volcaniclastic habitats for early life on Earth and Mars: A case study from ∼3.5 Ga-old rocks from the Pilbara, Australia

Within the context of present and future in situ missions to Mars to investigate its habitability and to search for traces of life, we studied the habitability and traces of past life in ∼3.5 Ga-old volcanic sands deposited in littoral environments an analogue to Noachian environments on Mars. The environmental conditions on Noachian Mars (4.1-3.7 Ga) and the Early Archaean (4.0-3.3 Ga) Earth were, in many respects, similar: presence of liquid water, dense CO₂ atmosphere, availability of carbon and bio-essential elements, and availability of energy. For this reason, information contained in Early Archaean terrestrial rocks concerning habitable conditions (on a microbial scale) and traces of past life are of relevance in defining strategies to be used to identify past habitats and past life on Mars.One such example is the 3.446 Ga-old Kitty’s Gap Chert in the Pilbara Craton, NW. Australia. This formation consists of volcanic sediments deposited in a coastal mudflat environment and is thus a relevant analogue for sediments deposited in shallow water environments on Noachian Mars. Two main types of habitat are represented, a volcanic (lithic) habitat and planar stabilized sediment surfaces in sunlit shallow waters. The sediments hosted small (<1 μm in size) microorganisms that formed colonies on volcanic particle surfaces and in pore waters within the volcanic sediments, as well as biofilms on stabilised sediment surfaces. The microorganisms included coccoids, filaments and rare rod-shaped organisms associated with microbial polymer (EPS). The preserved microbial community was apparently dominated by chemotrophic organisms but some locally transported filaments and filamentous mat fragments indicate that possibly photosynthetic mats formed nearby. Both microorganisms and sediments were silicified during very early diagenesis.There are no macroscopic traces of fossilised life in these volcanic sediments and sophisticated instrumentation and specialized sample preparation techniques are required to establish the biogenicity and syngenicity of the traces of past life. The fact that the traces of life are cryptic, and the necessity of using sophisticated instrumentation, reinforces the challenges and difficulties of in situ robotic missions to identify past life on Mars. We therefore recommend the return of samples from Mars to Earth for a definitive search for traces of life.     

Elements of comparison between Martian and terrestrial mesoscale meteorological phenomena: Katabatic winds and boundary layer convection

Terrestrial and Martian atmospheres are both characterised by a large variety of mesoscale meteorological events, occurring at horizontal scales of hundreds of kilometres and below. Available measurements from space exploration and recently developed high-resolution numerical tools have given insights into Martian mesoscale phenomena, as well as similarities and differences with their terrestrial counterparts. The remarkable intensity of Martian mesoscale events compared to terrestrial phenomena mainly results from low density and strong radiative control. This is exemplified in the present paper by discussing two mesoscale phenomena encountered in the lowest atmospheric levels of both planets with notable differences: nighttime katabatic winds (drainage flow down sloping terrains) and daytime boundary layer convection (vertical growth of mixed layer over heated surfaces). While observations of katabatic events are difficult on Earth, except over vast ice sheets, intense clear-cut downslope circulations are expected to be widespread on Mars. Convective motions in the daytime Martian boundary layer are primarily driven by radiative contributions, usually negligible on Earth where sensible heat flux dominates, and exhibit turbulent variances one order of magnitude larger. Martian maximum heat fluxes are not attained close to the surface as on Earth but a few hundreds of metres above, which implies generalised definitions for mixing layer scales such as vertical velocity w_?. Measurements on Mars of winds in uneven topographical areas and of heat fluxes over flat terrains could be useful to assess general principles of mesoscale meteorology applicable to both terrestrial and Martian environments.     

Crater streaks in the Chryse Planitia region of Mars: Early Viking results

High-resolution images of Chryse Planitia and eastern Lunae Planum from the early revolutions of Viking Orbiter I permit detailed analyses of crater-associated streaks and interpretation of related eolian processes. A total of 614 light and dark streaks were studied and treated statistically in relation to: (1) morphology, morphometry, and orientation, (2) “parent” crater size and morphology, (3) terrain type in which they occured, (4) topographic elevation, and (5) meteorological data currently being acquired by Viking Lander I. Three factors are apparent: (1) light streaks predominate, (2) most streaks form in association with fresh bowl-shaped craters, and (3) most light streaks are of the “parallel” type, whereas dark streaks are approximately evenly divided between convergent and parallel forms; moreover, very few light or dark streaks are divergent or fan-shaped. Light streaks have an average azimuth of 218° (corresponding to winds from the northeast), which approximates the orientation of 197 ± 14° for eolian “drifts” observed by the Viking Lander imaging team (Binder et al., 1977). This lends support to the hypothesis that light streaks are deposits of windblown sediments. Dark streaks are oriented at an azimuth of 42° (approximately opposite that of light streaks) and are nearly in line with the dominant wind direction currently recorded by the Viking meteorology instruments (Hess et al., 1977). Although the size of the sample area is not uniform among the various terrain types, the highest frequency of streaks per unit area occurs in the knobby terrain. This is partly explained by the probable production of fine-grained material (weathered from the knobs) to form streaks and other eolian features, and the higher wind turbulence generated around the knobs. The lowest frequency of streaks occurs on the elevated plateaus. The light streaks in Chryse Planitia appear to be relatively stable and to result from deposition of windblown material during times of relatively high velocity northeasterly winds. Dark streaks are more variable and probably result from erosion by southwesterly winds. Both types will be monitored during the extended Viking mission and the results compared with lander data.     

Comparison of knobs on mars to isolated hills in eolian,fluvial and glacial environments

Positive isolated features or knobs have been observed on Mars since Mariner 9 first photographed the planet in 1972. More recently, the Viking Orbiters photographed the surface at increased resolution. With the use of Viking photomosaics, a systematic search for knobs was completed. The knobs were characterized by length, width, geographic location, proximity to streaks and geologic surroundings. Similar isolated features on Earth eroded by fluvial, glacial, and eolian processes were studied and measured. Comparison of length-to-width ratios of Martian knobs to isolated hills on Earth indicate that the Martian knobs are most similar to the isolated hills formed in a hyper-arid environment. The terrestrial features were probably formed initially when solid rock was fractured, then wind erosion, starting at the fractures, continued to sweep away sediments leaving isolated hills. Such hills in fluvial and glacial environments have length-to-width ratios significantly higher than those of the Martian knobs. Other diagnostic features associated with such environments are absent in the case of the Martian knobs. Moreover, streaks, splotches, dunes and pitted and fluted rocks, all indicative of a eolian regime, are associated with the Martian knobs.     

Evidence of an eolian ice-rich and stratified permafrost in Utopia Planitia,Mars

Western Utopia Planitia (UP) is dotted with scalloped depressions, small-sized polygons and pingo-like mounds. Within the planetary science community, there seems to be a general agreement that these relatively recent landscape features are indicative of an ice-rich permafrost. However, questions about the concentration of ice-content and the origin of the permafrost remain unanswered. The scalloped depressions (～100 m to few km in diam.) are thought to be the product of degradation of ground-ice by thawing or sublimation. Indeed, most of the scalloped depressions display bright bands on their floors. These have been described as possible exposed sedimentary layers, markers of recessional ponded water or slumped material by previous works. As the depressions could represent probes of the permafrost, therefore the study of the inner bands could help to investigate the permafrost. Here, we evaluate the disparate hypotheses of band origin using several HiRISE images and a HiRISE DEM. We show that the depressions have an inner stepped-profile. This profile is reminiscent of exhumed and tilted sedimentary layers of different cohesion. Using ArcGIS, we estimate the dip of several layers (n=52). The stratification is complex comprising layers of ～2–4 m thick having different shallow dips with generally a north or south plunge sense. This geometry of tilted layers is typical on Earth of fluviatile or eolian sedimentation. In the last few years, several evidences on Mars, among them the subkilometer-scale smoothing of the topography and climatic simulations, suggested that the northern mid-latitudes have been influenced by eolian processes. The inferred complex stratification inside scalloped depressions may support an eolian origin of the permafrost in UP. In periglacial regions on Earth where thermokarst lakes are formed by extensive thawing of ground-ice, ice-rich permafrost are composed of fluvial or eolian sediments containing ～15–80% of ice by volume. By analogy, the wide occurrence of kilometric scalloped depressions in UP could assume an ice-rich permafrost of possibly same ice-content. The presence of this ice-rich and stratified permafrost raises interesting questions about its relatively recent formation and climatic significance.     

Ancient wet aeolian environments on Earth: clues to presence of fossil/live microorganisms on Mars

Ancient wet aeolian (wet-sabkha) environments on Earth, represented in the Entrada and Navajo sandstones of Utah, contain pipe structures considered to be the product of gas/water release under pressure. The sediments originally had considerable porosity allowing the ingress of living plant structures, microorganisms, clay minerals, and fine-grained primary minerals of silt and sand size from the surface downward in the sedimentary column. Host rock material is of a similar size and porosity and presumably the downward migration of fine-grained material would have been possible prior to lithogenesis and final cementation. Recent field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM) and EDS (energy-dispersive spectrometry) examination of sands from fluidized pipes in the Early Jurassic Navajo Sandstone reveal the presence of fossil forms resembling fungal filaments, some bearing hyphopodium-like structures similar to those produced by modern tropical leaf parasites. The tropical origin of the fungi is consistent with the paleogeography of the sandstone, which was deposited in a tropical arid environment. These fossil fungi are silicized, with minor amounts of CaCO₃ and Fe, and in some cases a Si/Al ratio similar to smectite. They exist as pseudomorphs, totally depleted in nitrogen, adhering to the surfaces of fine-grained sands, principally quartz and orthoclase. Similar wet aeolian paleoenvironments are suspected for Mars, especially following catastrophic sediment-charged floods of enormous magnitudes that are believed to have contributed to rapid formation of large water bodies in the northern plains, ranging from lakes to oceans. These events are suspected to have contributed to a high frequency of constructional landforms (also known as pseudocraters) related to trapped volatiles and water-enriched sediment underneath a thick blanket of materials that were subsequently released to the martian surface, forming piping structures at the near surface and constructional landforms at the surface. This constructional process on Mars may help unravel the complex history of some of the piping structures observed on Earth; on Earth, evidence for the constructional landforms has been all but erased and the near-surface piping structures exposed through millions of years of differential erosion and topographic inversion now occur as high-standing promontories. If the features on both Earth and Mars formed by similar processes, especially involving water and other volatiles, and since the piping structures of Earth provided suitable environments for life to thrive in, the martian features in the northern plains should be considered as prime targets for physico/mineral/chemical/microbiological analyses once the astrobiological exploration of the red planet begins in earnest.     

Classification of wind streaks on Mars

A classification of Martian wind streaks has been developed to assist in investigations of eolian transport and related meteorological phenomena on Mars. Streaks can be grouped by their albedo contrast with their surroundings and by the presence of either topographic obstacles or sediment deposits at their points of origin. The vast majority of wind streaks can be included in three categories. (1) Bright streaks with no source deposit: interpreted to be formed by preferential deposition of dust from suspension. (2) Dark streaks with no source deposit: interpreted to be formed by preferential erosion of bright dust and its removal in suspension. (3) Dark streaks associated with deposits of sediment: interpreted to be formed by deposition of dark material moved by saltation. The orientations of the different streak types are distinctive and reflect both global flow patterns and slope-controlled winds. The wind directions derived from streaks and the geographical distribution of the features show a strong north-south asymmetry—consistent with the fact that perihelion (and hence maximum wind activity) occurs near southern summer solstice.     

Sediment transport by liquid surficial flow: Application to Titan

Sediment transport by surficial flow likely occurs on Titan. Titan is thought to have a volatile cycle, such as on Earth and likely in the past on Mars, which would entail surficial liquid flow. And surficial flow is implied in interpretations of Cassini-Hyugens data as showing fluvial channels, which would require sediment transport by surficial flow to form the observable features. We present calculations from basic hydraulic formulae of sediment entrainment and transport by surficial flow. First, we describe the conditions for (non-cohesive) sediment entrainment by grain size through use of the Shields' threshold curve. We then calculate settling velocities by grain size to describe the type of sediment transport—washload, suspended load, or bedload—that would follow entrainment. These calculations allow derivation of required flow depths for sediment transport by grain size over a given slope. A technique to estimate required flow velocities and unit discharges is also presented. We show the results of these calculations for organic and water ice sediment movement by liquid methane flow under Titan gravity. For comparative purposes, plots for movement of quartz sediment by water on Earth and basalt sediment by water on Mars are also included. These results indicate that (non-cohesive) material would move more easily on Titan than on Earth or Mars. Terrestrial field observations suggest that coarse grain transport is enhanced by hyperconcentration of fine-grained sediment; and the apparent availability of organic (fine grained) sediment on Titan, in conjunction with the possibility of convection-driven rainstorms, may lead to hyperconcentrated flows. Thus, significant sediment transport may occur on Titan during individual overland flow events.     

Mesoscale linear streaks on Mars: environments of dust entrainment

Variable surface albedo features on Mars are likely caused by the entrainment and deposition of dust by the wind. Most discrete markings are associated with topographic forms or with regional slopes that serve to alter the effective wind shear stress on the surface. Some of the largest variable features, here termed mesoscale linear streaks, are up to 400 km in length and repeatedly occur in one of the smoothest regions of Mars: Amazonis Planitia. Their orientations and apparent season of variability as observed by Viking and Mars Orbiter cameras indicate linear streak formation by enhanced surface wind stresses during regional or local dust storms and during the initial stages of global dust storms. They provide an example of the ability of large-scale winds, without significant local enhancement, to initiate dust motion on Mars. The sizes and spacing of the linear streaks may be controlled by boundary layer rolls. The repetitive formation of these streaks, over a span of more than 11 Mars years, gives one measure of the stability of Mars’ eolian processes.     

Dust devil sediment flux on Earth and Mars: Laboratory simulations

Laboratory simulations using the Arizona State University Vortex Generator (ASUVG) were run to simulate sediment flux in dust devils in terrestrial ambient and Mars-analog conditions. The objective of this study was to measure vortex sediment flux in the laboratory to yield estimations of natural dust devils on Earth and Mars, where all parameters may not be measured. These tests used particles ranging from 2 to 2000 μm in diameter and 1300 to 4800 kg m⁻³ in density, and the results were compared with data from natural dust devils on Earth and Mars. Typically, the cores of dust devils (regardless of planetary environment) have a pressure decrease of ∼0.1-1.5% of ambient atmospheric pressure, which enhances the lifting of particles from the surface. Core pressure decreases in our experiments ranged from ∼0.01% to 5.00% of ambient pressure (10 mbar Mars cases and 1000 mbar for Earth cases) corresponding to a few tenths of a millibar for Mars cases and a few millibars for Earth cases. Sediment flux experiments were run at vortex tangential wind velocities of 1-45 m s⁻¹, which typically correspond to ∼30-70% above vortex threshold values for the test particle sizes and densities. Sediment flux was determined by time-averaged measurements of mass loss for a given vortex size. Sediment fluxes of ∼10⁻⁶-10⁰ kg m⁻² s⁻¹ were obtained, similar to estimates and measurements for fluxes in dust devils on Earth and Mars. Sediment flux is closely related to the vortex intensity, which depends on the strength of the pressure decrease in the core (ΔP). This study found vortex size is less important for lifting materials because many different diameters can have the same ΔP. This finding is critical in scaling the laboratory results to natural dust devils that can be several orders of magnitude larger than the laboratory counterparts.     

UVolution, a photochemistry experiment in low earth orbit: Investigation of the photostability of carbonates exposed to martian-like UV radiation conditions

The detection and identification of carbonates on Mars are of prime importance to establish the evolution of its atmosphere, correlated to the history of the liquid water, or even to determine the existence of a possible ancient biological activity. Till date, no large deposits of carbonates have been found. In fact, their detection is specific to local areas and in very low amounts. The absence of such deposits is commonly attributed to the harsh environmental conditions at the surface of Mars. Additionally, the presence of UV radiation has been proposed to explain their photodecomposition and hence their absence. However, contradictory results from laboratory experiments mimicking Mars’ surface UV radiation did not resolve the behaviour of carbonates in such an environment, which is why we exposed, in low Earth orbit and in laboratory experiments, both abiotic and biotic calcium carbonates to UV radiation of wavelength above 200 nm, the same spectral distribution as the one reaching the surface of Mars. For low Earth orbit (LEO) exposure, this was done for the UVolution experiment on board the BIOPAN ESA module, which was set outside a Russian Foton automated capsule, and exposed to space conditions for 12 days in September 2007. The targeted carbonates are biominerals and abiotic samples. Our laboratory results mainly show that the exposed carbonates appear to be stable to UV radiation if directly exposed to it. The LEO experiment results tend to the same conclusion, but the integrated exposition time to Solar UV during the experiment is not sufficient to be conclusive. However, the stability of the biominerals derived from the laboratory experiment could strengthen the interest to explore deeper their potential as life records at Mars. Hence, they should be considered as primary targets for in situ analyses during future missions.     

Volatile transport on inhomogeneous surfaces: I – Analytic expressions,with application to Pluto’s day

The two orders of magnitude drop between the measured atmospheric abundances of non-radiogenic argon, krypton and xenon in Earth versus Mars is striking. Here, in order to account for this difference, we explore the hypothesis that clathrate deposits incorporated into the current martian cryosphere have sequestered significant amounts of these noble gases assuming they were initially present in the paleoatmosphere in quantities similar to those measured on Earth (in mass of noble gas per unit mass of the planet). To do so, we use a statistical-thermodynamic model that predicts the clathrate composition formed from a carbon dioxide-dominated paleoatmosphere whose surface pressure ranges up to 3 bars. The influence of the presence of atmospheric sulfur dioxide on clathrate composition is investigated and we find that it does not alter the trapping efficiencies of other minor species. Assuming nominal structural parameters for the clathrate cages, we find that a carbon dioxide equivalent pressure of 0.03 and 0.9 bar is sufficient to trap masses of xenon and krypton, respectively, equivalent to those found on Earth in the clathrate deposits of the cryosphere. In this case, the amount of trapped argon is not sufficient to explain the measured Earth/Mars argon abundance ratio in the considered pressure range. In contrast, with a 2% contraction of the clathrate cages, masses of xenon, krypton and argon at least equivalent to those found on Earth can be incorporated into clathrates if one assumes the trapping of carbon dioxide at equivalent atmospheric pressures of ～2.3 bar. The proposed clathrate trapping mechanism could have then played an important role in the shaping of the current martian atmosphere.