Microscopic modelling of the hydraulic fracturing process

A microscopic perspective is introduced in this study which offers a detailed insight at the inter-particle level to the geo-mechanical responses caused by fluid injection and the resulting pressure build-up. This was achieved by employing the Discrete Element Method (DEM) to model the pressure development and the subsequent fracturing and/or cavity propagation. This technique represents the formation material as an assembly of discrete particles linked to each other through contacts. Numerical experiments were carried out on two sample materials. For the first instance, tests were carried out on a bulk material, representative of a generic intact rock, with the breakage of inter-particle bonds indicating the formation of cracks. The second series of tests was carried out on granular type materials such as sand, where particle separation signified cavity initiation and separation. It was observed from the DEM modelling results that the intact rock material showed a predominance of mode II fracturing at high fluid velocities. However, when the fluid velocity is reduced considerably the fracturing behaviour tended towards more of mode I. Also, records of the pressure development were taken from the numerical results and were used to monitor the fracturing events. The outcome of this study highlights important aspects of the hydraulic fracturing process especially at the particle–particle scale, and thus provides a strong basis for more exhaustive studies involving larger scale reservoir modelling and more complex fracturing scenarios.     

Simulations of hydro-fracking in rock mass at meso-scale using fully coupled DEM/CFD approach

The paper deals with two-dimensional (2D) numerical modelling of hydro-fracking (hydraulic fracturing) in rocks at the meso-scale. A numerical model was developed to characterize the properties of fluid-driven fractures in rocks by combining the discrete element method (DEM) with computational fluid dynamics (CFD). The mechanical behaviour of the rock matrix was simulated with DEM and the behaviour of the fracturing fluid flow in newly developed and pre-existing fractures with CFD. The changes in the void geometry in the rock matrix were taken into account. The initial 2D hydro-fracking simulation tests were carried out for a rock segment under biaxial compression with one injection slot in order to validate the numerical model. The qualitative effect of several parameters on the propagation of a hydraulic fracture was studied: initial porosity of the rock matrix, dynamic viscosity of the fracking fluid, rock strength and pre-existing fracture. The characteristic features of a fractured rock mass due to a high-pressure injection of fluid were realistically modelled by the proposed coupled approach.

     

Study on the particle breakage of ballast based on a GPU accelerated discrete element method

Breakage of particles will have greatly influence on mechanical behavior of granular material(GM)under external loads,such as ballast,rockfill and sand.The discrete element method(DEM)is one of the most popular methods for simulating GM as each particle is represented on its own.To study breakage mechanism of particle breakage,a cohesive contact mode is developed based on the GPU accelerated DEM code-Blaze-DEM.A database of the 3D geometry model of rock blocks is established based on the 3D scanning method.And an agglomerate describing the rock block with a series of non-overlapping spherical particles is used to build the DEM numerical model of a railway ballast sample,which is used to the DEM oedometric test to study the particles’breakage characteristics of the sample under external load.Furthermore,to obtain the meso-mechanical parameters used in DEM,a black-analysis method is used based on the laboratory tests of the rock sample.Based on the DEM numerical tests,the particle breakage process and mechanisms of the railway ballast are studied.All results show that the developed code can better used for large scale simulation of the particle breakage analysis of granular material.     

Investigation of thermal-hydro-mechanical coupled fracture propagation considering rock damage

Thermal-hydro-mechanical (THM) coupled fracture propagation is common in underground engineering. Rock damage, as an inherent property of rock, significantly affects fracture propagation, but how it influences the THM coupled fracturing remains stubbornly unclear. A pore-scale THM coupling model is developed to study this problem, which combines the lattice Boltzmann method (LBM), the discrete element method (DEM), and rock damage development theory together for the first time. This model can more accurately calculate the exchanged THM information at the fluid-solid boundary and fluid conductivity dependent on fracture and rock damage. Based on the developed model, the synergistic effect of injected temperature difference (fluid temperature below rock temperature) and rock damage (characterized by the parameter “critical fracture energy”, abbreviated as “CFE”) on fracture propagation of shale are investigated particularly. It is found that: (1) the generation of branched cracks is closely related to the temperature response frontier, and the fracture process zone of single bond failure increases in higher CFE. (2) through the analysis of micro failure events, hydraulic fracturing is more pronounced in the low CFE, while thermal fracturing displays the opposite trend. The fluid conductivity of fractured rock increases with a higher injected temperature difference due to the more penetrated cracks and wider fracture aperture. However, this enhancement weakens when rock damage is significant. (3) in the multiple-layered rock with various CFEs, branched cracks propagating to adjacent layers are more difficult to form when the injection hole stays in the layer with significant rock damage than without rock damage.

     

Suction and time effects in rockfill deformation

Ambient relative humidity controls the stress-strain-time behaviour of granular media exhibiting particle breakage. Breakage is the result of crack propagation inside loaded particles. The DEM model developed uses the results of subcritical crack propagation in brittle rock to predict breakage and the subsequent structural rearrangement. Two closed-form solutions at grain level, stress distribution under diametrically opposed forces and the mode I crack propagation velocity, were included in the DEM formulation. Crack propagation velocity depends explicitly on relative humidity. The resulting model incorporates comminution and splitting modes of particle breakage as well as arbitrary grain shapes by means of aggregation of spherical microparticles. The model was first validated against a large diameter suction-controlled oedometer test on hard limestone crushed gravel. Direct tests on contact properties (local stiffness and friction) helped to validate the model. The model was then used to predict the response of large diameter suction-controlled triaxial tests on gravels having different (uniform) initial sizes. Time delayed deformations and wetting-induced collapse deformations under maintained load are also a natural outcome of the model. They were shown to follow quite accurately the experimental results.     

Alteration of seismic wave properties and fluid permeability in sandstones due to microfracturing

Rock microfracturing significantly affects elastic and anelastic parameters as well as transport properties. Several rock models are proposed in literature relating rock microfractures and cracks to the effective velocities. However, the mechanisms involved in the attenuation of seismic waves still need further investigation in order to properly relate attenuation to fracturing. Laboratory measurements of ultrasonic wave propagation are performed on dry sandstones during increasing fracturing of the samples. Perpendicular to the loading axis the wave velocities decrease and attenuation increase. The observed decrease of wave velocity is a measure for the crack density of the newly formed cracks. Utilising crack densities and microstructural parameters the attenuation behaviour is interpreted in terms of the mechanisms friction and scattering. On the same rock samples the effect of fracturing on water transport is investigated. Measurements before and after the mechanical fracturing show a decrease of permeability in loading direction. The changes in seismic parameters and permeability are interpreted by different variations in rock microstructure. This should be considered when relating seismic and transport rock properties.     

煤岩模型试验相似材料的配比试验

相似模型试验是研究煤岩水力压裂裂缝扩展规律的重要手段之一,试验结论的有效性依靠相似材料的正确选材和配比。为开展水力压裂模拟试验,根据目标煤层原煤的力学性能,采用正交设计方法开展了相似材料配比试验,研制出适用于水力压裂试验的相似材料模型。其中,以水泥、石膏作为胶结剂,全粒径煤粉为骨料,通过大量室内试验,重点对相似材料的单轴抗压强度、弹性模量、泊松比、坚固性系数进行测定,对比分析原煤和相似材料强度特性,系统研究不同配比对相似材料参数的影响。结果表明:根据相似材料配比方案得出的相似材料力学性能能够满足煤岩相似模型试验的要求。研究结果可为水力压裂模拟试验中相似材料的选择及配比提供参考和借鉴。      

Geomechanical Characteristics of Gas Shales: A Case Study in the North Perth Basin

Gas shales are one type of unconventional reservoirs which have attracted significant attention for gas production in recent years. Gas production from very tight shales requires employment of hydraulic fracturing as a stimulation technique. To design hydraulic fracture operation the mechanical properties of the targeted and surrounding formations should be estimated. Also, the magnitude and orientation of in situ stresses in the field need to be known to estimate the fracture initiation and propagation pressures. This study focuses on gas shale characteristics in the North Perth Basin and uses data corresponding to well Arrowsmith-2 (AS-2) which is the first dedicated shale gas well drilled in Western Australia. A log-based analysis was used to build the rock mechanical model (RMM). The RMM results were used to set up a hydraulic fracturing laboratory experiment. The test was done in the presence of three principal stresses to mimic the real field stress conditions. The test results include the pressure–time curve which was used to estimate the initiation and propagation pressure at that depth. The results were used to draw some practical conclusions related to hydraulic fracturing operation in the field.     

Determination of Rock Fracture Toughness <Emphasis Type="Italic">K</Emphasis><Subscript>IIC</Subscript> and its Relationship with Tensile Strength

Hydraulic fracture propagation is greatly influenced by mode-II fracture toughness since this is one of the factors which determine whether a fracture diverts. Direct measurement of rock fracture toughness is constrained by high cost, limited number of available cores and long turn around time. Therefore, to overcome these constrains, it is necessary to develop an effective mode-II fracture toughness test which can be used in a prediction analysis for deep rock formations. Consequently, a mode-II fracture toughness test system was designed for rocks using the straight-notched Brazilian disc (SNBD) test methodology. In the experiment, this system was used to test 20 rock samples from the WG oilfield. This enabled a fracture toughness prediction model to be established, based on an analysis of the test data. H341 acoustic, density and gamma-ray logging data were used to predict horizontal stresses and rock tensile strength. When combined with the mode-II fracture toughness prediction model, continuous values were predicted, which were successfully confirmed by field fracturing practices. It was confirmed, therefore, that this successful method met the need of providing continuous fracture toughness data during field fracturing operations.     

多级循环泵注水力压裂模拟实验研究

超深储层地层起裂压力较高,水力压裂受现场泵注设备的限制严重,文中重点研究了大尺度水力压裂物模实验水泥样品尺寸（762 mm×762 mm×914 mm）在循环和常规两种泵注条件下的起裂扩展和声发射规律。实验结果显示,（1）相对于普通泵注,采用循环泵注方式进行水力压裂可以有效降低起裂压力,类似于单轴和三轴循环加载岩石力学行为,都是由于循环加载引起疲劳损伤;（2）对于螺旋射孔完井方式,水力压裂裂缝只从最薄弱射孔处起裂,一旦起裂后其他射孔孔眼很难再开启,水力压裂现场应合理选择分段距离和簇间距,实现储层改造效率最优化;（3）循环泵注水力压裂存在Kaiser效应（当加载应力到前次加载最高应力值时出现的声发射信息）。因孔隙流体扩散到岩石并导致孔隙压力的局部上升,破坏模式仍然可以由摩尔圆表示。研究成果对循环泵注条件的裂缝扩展规律研究以及发展新型压裂改造技术具有重要意义。     

Full-Scale Dynamic Analysis of an Innovative Rockfall Fence Under Impact Using the Discrete Element Method: from the Local Scale to the Structure Scale

In order to protect infrastructures against rockfalls, civil-engineered mitigation measures are widely used. Flexible metallic fences are particularly well suited to stop the propagation of blocks of rock whose kinetic energy can reach 5000?kJ before impact. This paper focuses on the design of highly flexible rockfall fences under the new European guideline ETAG027. The experimental testing and the numerical modeling using the discrete element method (DEM) of a new metallic rockfall fence are presented. Several scales of study were considered; the mesh, the net and the entire structure. The calibration of the DEM models is described and a parametrical study is proposed. The latter aims to underline the type of information that can be obtained from numerical simulations of such a system to enhance its design.     

Mechanical Tests on Pervasively Jointed Rock Material: Insight into Rock Mass Behaviour

Summary In the exploration phase for the design of an underground cavern in a limestone formation a large number of triaxial compression tests were carried out on laboratory specimens which were characterized by a variable degree of fracturing. The data were analyzed to investigate the influence of fracture intensity and of confining stress on the mechanical parameters. In particular, investigations focused on the relationships between the parameters of the strength criteria, respectively in residual and peak conditions, on the decay of the Young modulus with stress level in the prepeak phase of the test, and on the brittleness of the rock in the postpeak phase. The tested rock can be considered as a small-scale model of a jointed rock mass, and the laboratory data therefore provide useful insight into the mechanical behaviour of rock masses, especially the relationships between residual and peak strength parameters, which are required in many analytical models and in numerical codes for the analysis of underground excavations.     

基于扩展有限元法的碳酸盐岩地热储层岩体裂缝扩展行为

水力压裂作为一种主要的地热能开采手段,其压裂效果除与岩体基本物理力学性质有关外,还与裂隙分布、地应力状态、压裂工程参数等密切相关.为了探究以上因素对水力压裂过程中裂缝扩展行为的影响,以冀中坳陷碳酸盐岩储层岩体为研究对象,基于扩展有限元法,建立裂缝扩展流固耦合模型,分析了水平应力差、射孔方位角、注入液排量和压裂液黏度等参数对裂缝扩展行为的影响.结果表明:单裂缝扩展时,射孔方位角越小、注入量越大、越有利于裂缝扩展;双裂缝扩展时,水平应力差增大,裂缝偏转程度变小;水力裂缝与天然裂缝相交时,较小水平应力差有利于天然裂缝开启.     

Experimental and numerical studies of rock salt strain hardening

The work presented in this paper comes as part of a research program dealing with the thermomechanical behaviour of rock salt. It aims to study laboratory and in-situ long-term behaviour by means of creep tests with deviator and temperature changes. The laboratory results, using a triaxial multi-stages creep tests, highlighted the strain hardening character of rock salt. Furthermore, the in-situ results, using a borehole dilatometer multi-step creep test, have shown that the drilling is carried out in a weakly stressed pillar. The interpretation of the laboratory results, using the J.LEMAITRE law, did not indicate full agreement with all the test results. As a result a ‘double’ J.LEMAITRE model, which takes into account a double strain hardening variable, has been put forward. The validation of this model on the laboratory creep tests is very satisfactory. Furthermore, the activation energy seems satisfactory to represent the influence of the temperature. The in-situ behaviour modelling is clearly more complex than the modelization based on laboratory tests. In fact, it seems that if the rock salt behaviour is maintained by J.LEMAITRE law, it is necessary to vary with the stress, at least, one of the parameters assumed constant in the basic law.     

An explicitly coupled hydro‐geomechanical model for simulating hydraulic fracturing in arbitrary discrete fracture networks

Modeling hydraulic fracturing in the presence of a natural fracture network is a challenging task, owing to the complex interactions between fluid, rock matrix, and rock interfaces, as well as the interactions between propagating fractures and existing natural interfaces. Understanding these complex interactions through numerical modeling is critical to the design of optimum stimulation strategies. In this paper, we present an explicitly integrated, fully coupled discrete‐finite element approach for the simulation of hydraulic fracturing in arbitrary fracture networks. The individual physical processes involved in hydraulic fracturing are identified and addressed as separate modules: a finite element approach for geomechanics in the rock matrix, a finite volume approach for resolving hydrodynamics, a geomechanical joint model for interfacial resolution, and an adaptive remeshing module. The model is verified against the Khristianovich–Geertsma–DeKlerk closed‐form solution for the propagation of a single hydraulic fracture and validated against laboratory testing results on the interaction between a propagating hydraulic fracture and an existing fracture. Preliminary results of simulating hydraulic fracturing in a natural fracture system consisting of multiple fractures are also presented. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

岩样密实度对水力压裂特征参数的影响研究

为研究水力压裂在不同致密程度岩样中的压裂效果及其流固耦合作用机理，制作了不同密实度的两种重塑样，利用真密度测试仪、声波测试系统分别测定了两种试样的孔隙比例、声波大小，并结合三轴加载水力压裂监测系统，模拟一定地层压力条件下不同密实度试样的水力压裂试验。分析不同孔隙度下声波试验获得的声波数据得出:试验制得的试样致密程度不同，孔隙大的试样密实度较小，波速大小与试样密实度呈正相关；水力压裂试验中，致密试样的裂缝扩展方向与最大主应力平行。水压曲线变化趋势为:低密实度时，达到峰值压力的时间较峰后段持续时间短，高密实度试样则相反；低密实度试样的破裂压力值低于水力压裂缝内水压曲线的峰值，高密实度试样两压力值相当。结合高、低密实度试样的分析并进行高密实度试样的无围压试验可以得出:较小的流量变化对致密度较大的试样裂缝扩展方向影响较小，说明其渗流作用较弱。应力集中效应在无围压的试样和低密实度试样均表现明显，这说明，水力压裂试验中应力集中现象在低密实度试样中表现明显，这与其渗流作用较强有关，水力压裂渗流作用与注液流量正相关，在低密实度试样表现显著。     

孔隙水压力对岩石裂纹扩展影响的数值模拟

应用岩石破坏过程渗流-应力-损伤(FSD)耦合分析软件F-RFPA2D,通过对孔隙水压作用下岩石试件加载破坏过程的数值模拟,对孔隙水压力大小和梯度对岩石试样中裂纹的萌生和扩展进行了数值模拟研究。模拟结果再现了孔隙水压力作用下裂纹萌生扩展的全过程,表明孔隙水压力大小和梯度对岩石中裂纹的萌生和扩展模式都有很大的影响。     

Experimental Investigation on the Basic Law of Hydraulic Fracturing After Water Pressure Control Blasting

Because of the advantages of integrating water pressure blasting and hydraulic fracturing, the use of hydraulic fracturing after water pressure control blasting is a method that is used to fully transform the structure of a coal-rock mass by increasing the number and range of hydraulic cracks. An experiment to study hydraulic fracturing after water pressure blasting on cement mortar samples (300 × 300 × 300 mm³) was conducted using a large-sized true triaxial hydraulic fracturing experimental system. A traditional hydraulic fracturing experiment was also performed for comparison. The experimental results show that water pressure blasting produces many blasting cracks, and follow-up hydraulic fracturing forces blasting cracks to propagate further and to form numerous multidirectional hydraulic cracks. Four macroscopic main hydraulic cracks in total were noted along the borehole axial and radial directions on the sample surfaces. Axial and radial main failure planes induced by macroscopic main hydraulic cracks split the sample into three big parts. Meanwhile, numerous local hydraulic cracks were formed on the main failure planes, in different directions and of different types. Local hydraulic cracks are mainly of three types: local hydraulic crack bands, local branched hydraulic cracks, and axial layered cracks. Because local hydraulic cracks produce multiple local layered failure planes and lamellar ruptures inside the sample, the integrity of the sample decreases greatly. The formation and propagation process of many multidirectional hydraulic cracks is affected by a combination of water pressure blasting, water pressure of fracturing, and the stress field of the surrounding rock. To a certain degree, the stress field of surrounding rock guides the formation and propagation process of the blasting crack and the follow-up hydraulic crack. Following hydraulic fracturing that has been conducted after water pressure blasting, the integrity of the sample is found to be far lower than after traditional hydraulic fracturing; moreover, both the water injection volume and water injection pressure for hydraulic fracturing after water pressure blasting are much higher than they are for traditional hydraulic fracturing.     

基于Gassmann方程岩石速度倒转现象成因分析

Gassmann理论主要用于处理流体替换问题,在进行流体替换研究中发现总会在一定情况下出现"倒转现象"。解释为在一定的孔隙度情况下,100%含气岩石速度大于100%含水岩石速度,这同岩石物理实验室测试结果相违背。因此针对不同的岩样数据及测井资料,图示分析了完全饱和岩石速度倒转成因,发现替换后饱和岩石密度差异过大会造成此现象。同时在对碳酸盐岩储层岩石进行了饱和度替换数值模拟后发现,模拟结果同实验室测试数据趋势一致,只是碳酸盐岩对孔隙度大小分类不同。因此强调了流体替换正演模拟的重要性,在一定物理意义下的替换才有实际价值。     

Effects of Grain Size on the Initiation and Propagation Thresholds of Stress-induced Brittle Fractures

Summary The microstructure of rock is known to influence its strength and deformation characteristics. This paper presents the results of a laboratory investigation into the effects of grain size on the initiation and propagation thresholds of stress-induced brittle fracturing in crystalline rocks with similar mineralogical compositions, but with three different grain sizes. Strain gauge and acoustic emission measurements were used to aid in the identification and characterization of the different stages of crack development in uniaxial compression. Results indicate that grain size had only a minor effect on the stress at which new cracks initiated. Crack initiation thresholds were found to be more dependent on the strength of the constituent minerals. Grain size did have a significant effect, however, in controlling the behaviour of the cracks once they began to propagate. The evidence suggests that longer grain boundaries and larger intergranular cracks, resulting from increased grain size, provide longer paths of weakness for growing cracks to propagate along. This promoted degradation of material strength once the longer cracks began to coalesce and interact. Thus, rock strength was found to decrease with increasing grain size, not by inducing crack initiation at lower stresses, but through a process where longer cracks propagating along longer planes of weakness coalesced at lower stresses.