Gypsum-karst problems in constructing dams in the USA

Gypsum is a highly soluble rock and is dissolved readily to form caves, sinkholes, disappearing streams, and other karst features that typically are also present in limestones and dolomites. Gypsum karst is widespread in the USA and has caused problems at several sites where dams were built, or where dam construction was considered. Gypsum karst is present (at least locally) in most areas where gypsum crops out, or is less than 30–60 m below the land surface. These karst features can compromise on the ability of a dam to hold water in a reservoir, and can even cause collapse of a dam. Gypsum karst in the abutments or foundation of a dam can allow water to pass through, around, or under a dam, and solution channels can enlarge quickly, once water starts flowing through such a karst system. The common procedure for controlling gypsum karst beneath the dam is a deep cut-off trench, backfilled with impermeable material, or a close-spaced grout curtain that hopefully will fill all cavities. In Oklahoma, the proposed Upper Mangum Dam was abandoned before construction, because of extensive gypsum karst in the abutments and impoundment area. Catastrophic failure of the Quail Creek Dike in southwest Utah in 1989 was due to flow of water through an undetected karstified gypsum unit beneath the earth-fill embankment. The dike was rebuilt, at a cost of US $12 million, with construction of a cut-off trench 600 m long and 25 m deep. Other dams in the USA with severe gypsum-karst leakage problems in recent years are Horsetooth and Carter Lake Dams, in Colorado, and Anchor Dam, in Wyoming.     

Computational analysis of the experimental physical model: Karstic layer in dam foundation

Karstic rocks (soluble rocks) exist in different areas of the world having useful/harmful structural and environmental impacts. One of the useful aspect is availability of rich water resources in some regions. An important defect of this kind of rocks is their low strength against water flows. These rocks usually dissolve in acidic water and as a result abundant caverns are created inside them. The gypsum and salt present in these rocks dissolve even in non-acidic water. Presence of these rocks in different foundations and reservoirs especially in dams could be potentially dangerous and cause enormous problems. If dams are located above soluble rocks like limestone, dolomite or gypsum they are endangered by karstification. Karstification is a dynamic process resulting in voids within the rocks due to dissolution. This dissolution leads to the formation of a pipe system within the sub-surface In the physical modeling, effects of cut-off wall height within gypsum layer were examined and monitored. Then with GeoStudio and Flac software, results of physical modeling are analyzed. In each experiment, cut-off wall height was changed. The result of the experiments indicated that as the gypsum Karst is very weak against water, cut-off wall must continue completely within the gypsum layer, as a complete positive cut-off wall.     

某磷石膏尾矿库堆积坝渗透稳定性分析

随着尾矿库堆积坝高度的增加,库内的地下水渗流场将发生改变,当尾矿堆积坝处的实际水力梯度大于临界水力梯度时,尾矿库堆积坝将产生渗透变形或失稳破坏。为了预测某已建磷石膏尾矿库堆积坝的渗透稳定性,本文运用地下水位计水位恢复试验去确定磷石膏尾矿渗透系数并计算水力梯度,同时采用Geo-studio软件中的SEEP/W模块分析磷石膏堆积坝在不同工况下的渗透稳定性。计算和分析结果表明当堆积坝处于945m堆积高程,在无干滩和100m干滩情况下,实际水力梯度分别为0.784和0.583;当堆积坝处于960m堆积高程,无干滩情况下,实际水力梯度为0.692,在以上两种情况下,堆积坝渗出点高程高于初始坝高程,堆积坝将出现流土变形,坝体处于不稳定状态。当堆积坝处于960m堆积高程100m干滩时,堆积坝上无渗出点,堆积坝处于稳定状态。分析研究结果对该尾矿库的安全运行和维护管理提供技术依据,同时为同类型尾矿库堆积坝渗透稳定性评价提供参考。     

光照碾压混凝土大坝渗控分析

基于光照水电站坝基水文地质条件及坝体渗透特性的研究,建立了大坝三维有限元模型,模型较详细地考虑了坝体大坝不防渗结构和排水系统及坝基地质和防排渗结构。分析研究了薄层单元、排水孔幕的模拟方法,采用合适的方法计算了同条件下的渗控情况。通过综合对比分析,对该坝的渗流规律及相应渗控措施进行了初步地探讨。     

第三系红层中石膏溶蚀特性及其对工程的影响

第三系红层中石膏分布比较广泛,大量的实验证明,石膏发生溶蚀的主要是含Ca2 的物质,并且溶蚀速率和与水接触的方式以及水头压力大小有直接关系。结合现场资料,将渗透系数K=10-5cm s作为石膏在第三系红层泥岩封闭下发生溶蚀的判据。同时针对水利工程中石膏溶蚀以及对砼的腐蚀性提出了相应的防治措施。     

坝基二维渗流场的大尺寸物理模型试验

利用大尺寸砂槽试验模型模拟了坝基二维渗流全过程,并着重分析了坝基二维渗流场的变化情况。模型槽内土样渗透变形破坏后,取不同区域土样进行颗粒分析试验。根据渗透变形试验所获得的参数,运用GeoStudio 2007软件对坝基渗流场进行数值分析,所得渗流场分布与物理模型试验结果基本吻合,说明该二维渗流场的物理模型试验结果较为合理。结果表明,渗透破坏主要发生在坝体下渗透路径较短的区域内,而坝基上下游基本未产生渗透变形;产生渗透破坏后,渗流路径发生较大改变,导致渗透破坏区域渗流量大幅增加,加速坝基破坏进程。     

Subsidence hazards due to evaporite dissolution in the United States

Evaporites, including gypsum (or anhydrite) and salt, are the most soluble of common rocks; they are dissolved readily to form the same type of karst features that typically are found in limestones and dolomites, and their dissolution can locally result in major subsidence structures. The four basic requirements for evaporite dissolution to occur are: (1) a deposit of gypsum or salt; (2) water, unsaturated with CaSO₄ or NaCl; (3) an outlet for escape of dissolving water; and (4) energy to cause water to flow through the system. Evaporites are present in 32 of the 48 contiguous states of the United States, and they underlie about 35–40% of the land area. Karst is known at least locally (and sometimes quite extensively) in almost all areas underlain by evaporites, and some of these karst features involve significant subsidence. The most widespread and pronounced examples of both gypsum and salt karst and subsidence are in the Permian basin of the southwestern United States, but many other areas also are significant. Human activities have caused some evaporite–subsidence development, primarily in salt deposits. Boreholes may enable (either intentionally or inadvertently) unsaturated water to flow through or against salt deposits, thus allowing development of small to large dissolution cavities. If the dissolution cavity is large enough and shallow enough, successive roof failures above the cavity can cause land subsidence or catastrophic collapse.     

极端条件下心墙泥浆料的渗透反滤试验研究

高土石心墙坝的渗透稳定性在很大程度上依赖于反滤层对心墙料的反滤保护作用。心墙在大坝蓄水和长期运行的条件下,要经历复杂的填筑加载、浸水饱和与水荷载的作用,在差异沉降、复杂结构应力作用、水力劈裂和渗透水流作用下,心墙一旦出现裂缝,其渗透稳定性及反滤层的保护作用就将面临严峻的考验。针对这一问题,设计了专门非常规的抛填土料反滤试验和泥浆渗透反滤试验,模拟心墙裂缝条件下其颗粒被冲刷起动后,被反滤料阻挡和淤积过程。试验结果表明,心墙料和反滤料满足反滤准则条件下,心墙颗粒被拦截和淤积在反滤层上游表面,反滤料能有效防止心墙颗粒的流失,反滤层在极端条件下对心墙料仍能起到有效的反滤保护作用。     

Karstification below dam sites: a model of increasing leakage from reservoirs

Unnaturally steep hydraulic gradients below foundations or across abutments of dams may cause solutional widening of fractures in karstifiable rocks of carbonates or gypsum. This could cause increasing leakage which may endanger the performance of the construction. To investigate this problem recent models on natural karstification have been applied. We have performed numerical simulations of leakage below a model dam with a grouting curtain reaching down to 100 m below its impermeable foundation of 100 m width. Water is impounded to a depth of 100 m. The dam is located on a terrane of fractured rock dissected by two perpendicular sets of fractures with spacing of 5 m, and with a log-normal distribution of their initial aperture widths of about 0.02 cm. In the first state of karstification these fractures widen slowly, until a pathway of widened fractures below the grouting has reached the downstream side with exit widths of about 1 mm. This causes a dramatic increase of leakage, and turbulent flow sets in. After this breakthrough at time T, in the second state of karstification, dissolution rates become even along these fractures and cause widening of about 0.1 cm year^-1 for limestone, and at least of 1 cm year^-1 for gypsum. This leads to an increase in leakage to excessive rates within 25 years for limestone, but only 5 years for gypsum. We have performed a sensitivity analysis of breakthrough time T for the various parameters which determine the problem. The result shows breakthrough times in the order of several tens of years for both limestone and gypsum. We have also modelled leakage to caves or karst channels 200 m below the bottom of the reservoir, which could induce the formation of sinkholes. The model can be extended to more realistic settings. In conclusion, our results support the prediction that increasing leakage at dam sites can be caused by recent karstification which is activated after filling the reservoir, possibly leading to serious problems within its lifetime.     

库水位下降时的岸坡非稳定渗流问题研究

水位下降时岸坡的渗流是涉及土体由饱和向非饱和状态过渡的水-气二相流过程,目前相关研究成果大都假设孔隙气压力为0,忽略孔隙气的影响。根据水、空气的质量守恒定律和达西定律,结合多相流理论建立水-气二相流模型,采用高效的积分有限差分法求解,通过变换主要变量,实现饱和（单相）与非饱和（二相）的相互转变,并给出各种边界条件下合理的数学处理方法。通过Muskat渗流问题,验证了上述模型的正确性;并对某土质岸坡水位下降时的非稳定渗流问题进行分析,结果表明,岸坡的基质吸力小于浸润线以上的负孔隙水压力,在浸润线以上的很大区域为毛细管水饱和带,其土体饱和且基质吸力为0,这对边坡稳定十分不利,精确分析水位下降的边坡稳定问题时,孔隙气压力变化的影响值得研究。     

Seepage problems in the right abutment of the Shahid Abbaspour dam, southern Iran

In this study, seepage phenomena through the right abutment of Shahid Abbaspour dam are investigated. The Shahid Abbaspour dam is a 200 m high arch dam, which regulates the waters of the Karun River, serves power generation, and flood control and irrigation needs. The dam site lies in the Zagros Mountains of southern Iran. This region presents continuous series of mainly of karstic limestone, marl, shale and gypsum ranging in age from Jurassic to Pliocene. The region has subsequently been folded and faulted. Seepage from the Shahid Abbaspour reservoir occurs mainly through the karstic limestone.The basic foundation treatment of the dam consisted of consolidation grouting, a high-pressure grout curtain and a drainage curtain. Moreover, a 144 m high and 30 m wide concrete cutoff wall was built to prevent reservoir seepage through a clay-filled fracture zone in the right abutment. The grout curtain penetrates the “Principal Vuggy Zone” only beneath the central portion of the dam and below the cutoff wall. In the right abutment fan curtains were constructed to reduce drainage flows, but the seepage problem could not be solved. In order to determine the seepage direction and karstification pattern, hydrogeological studies have been carried out. Additional investigation boreholes have been drilled to monitor fluctuations in groundwater level. Besides these, water chemistry, dye tracer, pinhole and XRF tests have been carried out. As a result of these studies, seepage paths have been identified in the karstic limestone in the right abutment of the dam.     

卡拉水电站坝区渗流控制效应精细模拟与评价

卡拉水电站坝址区河谷狭窄,岸坡陡峻,地质条件复杂,渗漏问题突出。为减小卡拉坝区渗漏并改善大坝的渗透稳定性,工程设计采取防渗帷幕、排水孔幕和排水洞等防渗排水措施。采用子结构、变分不等式和自适应罚函数相结合的方法（简称SVA方法）,结合典型溢流坝段与坝区整体渗流场分析成果,评价卡拉大坝及坝基渗流控制方案的合理性,并论证其优化的可能性。研究表明：①防渗帷幕有效雍高了帷幕上游侧岩体内的地下水位、增加了绕坝渗流的渗径长度并降低了坝基的扬压力,排水系统则显著降低了坝体内的孔隙水压力以及坝基扬压力;②排水孔幕间距对坝体内的自由面分布有着显著影响,排水孔幕间距取3.0～4.5 m是合适的。     

河间隐伏型岩溶裂隙含水系统演化的数值模拟

为揭示隐伏型岩溶含水系统在不同边界条件与介质特征下的发育状况,基于地下水渗流和碳酸盐岩溶蚀理论构建耦合裂隙网络渗流与碳酸盐岩溶蚀的岩溶裂隙网络溶蚀扩展模型,模拟再现了河间隐伏型岩溶含水系统平面上发育演化过程。结果显示:岩溶系统发育过程中流量变化呈现三个阶段:第Ⅰ阶段为缓慢层流阶段,流量增速为2.2×10 -6 mL·(s·a) -1,持续时间与初始水头差呈对数关系;第Ⅱ阶段为极快速紊流阶段,流量增速为5.5×10 2 mL·(s·a) -1,持续时间与初始水头差呈线性关系;第Ⅲ阶段为快速紊流阶段,流量增速为26 mL·(s·a) -1。优势裂隙的存在使得岩溶裂隙网络溶蚀演化加快,非均质系统进入极快速紊流阶段所用时间较均质系统缩短了53%,裂隙溶蚀扩展的速度加快了12.5%。      

阿青水电站沥青心墙坝渗流分析与控制

水电站的渗流计算分析是一项复杂而在设计中又极其重要的工作,很难获得符合实际的渗流分析结果。结合阿青水电站的渗流控制分析,全面阐述了水电站渗流分析中熟悉工程概况和水文地质条件,明确分析任务、概化模型、剖分网格、选取材料参数,确定了计算方案和边界条件,整理分析计算结果,进行方案比较,分析了参数敏感性的方法和过程,认为应做好上述每一个环节,对全面把握工程的渗流性状,进行防渗排水体系的方案选择和优化的重要意义。分析表明,河床最大剖面的渗流量不一定比较低坝高剖面的渗流量大,狭窄河谷心墙堆石坝坝体和坝基总的渗流量,也可能比大坝最大剖面的渗流量与坝轴线长度的乘积大。     

Analysis of leaky sheetpile by Summary Representation

A numerical technique called Summary Representation was used to solve the problem of seepage through a leaky sheetpile; this particular method was selected owing to its accuracy and computational speed. Seepage parameters were evaluated quantitatively and the influence of the leakiness of sheetpiles in a porous medium underlain by an impervious horizontal stratum was determined. The case of a single sheetpile was first considered, and the effect of the depth of penetration and coefficient of leakiness on the total rate of flow and on the values of the exit gradient was analysed. Next, the flow under an impervious dam was considered to assess the accuracy of the method. Finally, the case of seepage under a dam with leaky sheetpiles at both ends was studied, including the effect of the leaky sheetpiles on the uplift pressure acting along the foundation of the dam. Patterns of seepage through the flow line deformation that is caused by the leakiness of the sheetpiles.     

塔里木盆地寒武系与蒸发岩相关的白云岩储层特征及主控因素

塔里木盆地寒武系广泛发育白云岩,其中中寒武统地层沉积了巨厚的蒸发岩,蒸发岩和白云岩可以构成很好的储盖组合,该领域也是塔里木盆地未来勘探的新领域。萨布哈白云岩和渗透回流白云岩是两种与蒸发岩相关的白云岩,其储层发育的主控因素也都与蒸发岩存在着直接或间接的联系。通过对大量岩芯、薄片、主量元素、稀土元素、碳、氧稳定同位素及锶稳定同位素等地球化学测试和测井资料的细致研究,系统总结了它们的岩石学特征、地球化学特征。萨布哈白云岩储层的岩性以含石膏的泥 粉晶白云岩为特征,孔隙类型主要为膏模孔和溶塌角砾砾间孔,萨布哈白云石化作用及伴生石膏的沉淀作用和准同生期大气淡水溶蚀作用是该类储层的主控因素;渗透回流白云岩储层的岩性以保留原岩颗粒或藻（丘）格架结构的粉晶白云岩为特征,孔隙类型主要为粒间孔、铸模孔、格架孔,渗透回流白云石化作用和大气淡水溶蚀作用是该类储层的主控因素。两者主要发育于塔里木盆地干旱气候背景下的中-下寒武统地层,其分布规律主要受沉积相控制。     

湖南新田水浸窝水库渗漏分析及其治理

水浸窝水库是采用全封闭式堵洞而成的地下、地表水库。其渗漏类型按渗漏及出流状况分,属于集中管道渗漏、集中管道式出流;以渗漏场在水库中所处的地貌部位分,属于近坝库岸渗漏类型(坝下渗漏)。解决该水库渗漏的最佳方案是在原坝址上游83. 0m处修建新坝并辅以适当的帷幕灌浆处理。该处工程地质条件好,无需清基,坝前有天然通气孔,经济安全。      

堰塞坝体材料渗透特性及其稳定性研究

堰塞坝是由于崩塌、滑坡、泥石流等形成的天然坝体,不同于人工土石坝,堰塞坝坝体结构松散,颗粒级配不均匀,在较高水头作用下坝体可能发生渗透破坏而导致溃坝,严重威胁下游人民群众的生命及财产安全。由于堰塞坝存在较大粒径颗粒,常规的渗透试验装置难以满足要求,本文研制了直径为60cm的大直径渗透试验仪,进行了不同堰塞坝级配材料的渗透破坏试验,并探讨了堰塞坝体材料渗透特性的主要影响因素。研究发现:（1）堰塞坝材料的渗透破坏形式取决于材料级配,粗颗粒含量较多时为管涌破坏,细颗粒含量较多或粒径缺失时为流土破坏;（2）堰塞坝渗透系数随干密度的增大而减小,主要取决于细料填充粗料孔隙的程度,单独使用不均匀系数或曲率系数不适用于评价渗透系数的变化;（3）基于试验数据提出了用于堰塞坝渗流破坏形式的判别公式,并推导出堰塞坝管涌破坏的临界水力坡降计算公式。     

拦河坝砼防渗墙的施工技术

拦河坝砼防渗墙多在砂层与砂卵石层上施工，地基处理根据地质条件选择，施工方法有无导孔挖槽导孔挖槽，冲击成槽，回转钻成槽，锯槽机成槽，锯槽机为新型防渗成墙材料提供了新的施工手段，但有局限性。