单轴压缩条件下含三叉裂隙类岩石试样力学特性的细观研究

三叉裂隙是自然界普遍存在的一种岩体缺陷形式,其对岩体的力学特性有重要影响。对含预制三叉裂隙的水泥砂浆试样进行室内单轴压缩试验,配合使用摄像机拍摄裂纹的起裂、扩展、贯通过程,通过数字图像技术处理获取试样的应变场云图,并结合PFC2D程序研究不同?、? 条件下试样的强度特征、裂纹模式和裂纹演化扩展规律。研究表明：三叉裂隙对试样单轴抗压强度有明显的削弱作用。当? 恒定为120°时,试样在? = 30°时达到最大抗压强度;当? 恒定为90°时,随?增大,试样抗压强度呈先减小后增大的趋势,且当? = 45°时达到最大抗压强度。试样产生的裂纹可分为3类,分别是张拉型裂纹(Ⅰ型裂纹)、剪切型裂纹(Ⅱ型裂纹)、混合型裂纹(Ⅲ型裂纹)。这3类裂纹通常从裂隙尖端开始产生,并且Ⅰ型裂纹沿加载方向扩展,通常未扩展至试样边界;Ⅱ型和Ⅲ型裂纹通常与加载方向呈一定角度扩展至试样边界。通过对裂纹的几何形态和组成宏观裂纹的微裂纹成分的分析,得知导致含三叉裂隙试样在单轴压缩条件下失效的是张拉破坏。数字图像技术得到的应变云图表明,当载荷达到一定阶段,裂隙尖端出现应力集中,微破裂开始发育并聚集成微破裂区,微破裂区扩大产生宏观裂纹。通过对主应变和剪应变云图分析,发现导致试样失效的是张拉破坏,剪应变在裂纹扩展过程中的影响较小。     

Petrographic Investigation of Microcrack Initiation in Mafic Ophiolitic Rocks Under Uniaxial Compression

This paper investigates the influence of the petrographic characteristics of mafic ophiolitic rocks on the initiation and propagation of microcracks during uniaxial compression. The microcrack patterns of a troctolite and a diorite, collected from the Pindos and Othrys ophiolites (Greece), respectively, were analysed. Thorough observation and quantification of microcracks before and after the uniaxial compression test were conducted. Combined fluorescent and polarised microscopy of polished thin sections, together with digital image analysis, indicated that the intragranular microcracks are the dominating crack type in both loaded and unloaded specimens, only in terms of their total number and length. On the other hand, the intergranular and transgranular cracks seem to grow more readily compared to the intragranular cracks, implying that the longer microcracks grow more extensively under stress. The orientation of most of the newly formed intragranular and transgranular microcracks is nearly parallel to the loading direction; however, some of the randomly oriented transgranular cracks have probably been formed during the propagation of intergranular cracks. In the troctolite, the frequency of the intragranular microcracks decreases in the olivine crystals after the uniaxial compression test due to their partial serpentinisation, which increases their resistance to brittle deformation. In the plagioclase crystals of the troctolite, microcracks are often oriented parallel to the cleavage planes, implying that such crystallographic orientations act as planes of weakness. On the contrary, the plagioclase crystals of the diorite are mainly crossed by randomly oriented microcracks, presumably due to their high degree of alteration. In the diorite, the evolution of microcracks is substantially controlled by the two perfect cleavages of amphibole. The failure of a rock occurs as a result of the growth, interaction and coalescence of a great number of pre-existing and newly formed intragranular and transgranular microcracks. The petrographic and microcrack analysis may assist in the selection of the most suitable rock type for various construction applications.     

岩石单轴压缩下能量与损伤演化规律研究

能量变化是材料各参数变化的本质特征。通过颗粒流模拟岩石单轴压缩试验,从细观力学角度分析能量转化、裂纹扩展及损伤演化规律。颗粒流利用细观颗粒的运动克服了宏观力学理论不易实现试件多裂纹破坏形态的缺点,以此研究能量变化更加合理。应力-应变各阶段能量与微裂纹及损伤存在着相互对应的发展关系。通过3种工况论证了宏-细观力学参数对应关系,采用最小二乘法拟合得出微裂纹与轴向应变呈幂次函数关系。采用割线模量定义损伤变量,取模量加速下降处（对应裂纹加速扩展）为损伤门槛,对应损伤阈值为0.158。3种工况下微裂纹数量与损伤呈线性发展关系,为损伤演化的深入研究提供参考。     

Crack Initiation and Crack Propagation in Heterogeneous Sulfate-Rich Clay Rocks

Brittle fracture processes were hypothesized by several researches to cause a damage zone around an underground excavation in sulfate-rich clay rock when the stress exceeds the crack initiation threshold, and may promote swelling by crystal growth in newly formed fractures. In this study, laboratory experiments such as unconfined and confined compression tests with acoustic emission monitoring, and microstructural and mineralogical analyses are used to explain brittle fracture processes in sulfate-rich clay rock from the Gipskeuper formation in Switzerland. This rock type typically shows a heterogeneous rock fabric consisting of distinct clayey layers and stiff heterogeneities such as anhydrite layers, veins or nodules. The study showed that at low deviatoric stress, the failure behavior is dominated by the strength of the clayey matrix where microcracks are initiated. With increasing deviatoric stress or strain, growing microcracks eventually are arrested at anhydrite veins, and cracks develop either aligned with the interface between clayey layers and anhydrite veins, or penetrate anhydrite veins. These cracks often link micro-fractured regions in the specimen. This study also suggest that fracture localization in sulfate-rich clay rocks, which typically show a heterogeneous rock fabric, does not take place in the pre-peak range and renders unstable crack propagation less likely. Sulfate-rich clay rocks typically contain anhydrite veins at various scales. At the scale of a tunnel, anhydrite layers or veins may arrest growing fractures and prevent the disintegration of the rock mass. The rock mass may be damaged when the threshold stress for microcrack initiation is exceeded, thus promoting swelling by crystal growth in extension fractures, but the self-supporting capacity of the rock mass may be maintained rendering the possibility for rapidly propagating instability less likely.     

Cracking Processes in Rock-Like Material Containing a Single Flaw Under Uniaxial Compression: A Numerical Study Based on Parallel Bonded-Particle Model Approach

Cracking processes have been extensively studied in brittle rock and rock-like materials. Due to the experimental limitations and the complexity of rock texture, details of the cracking processes could not always be observed and assessed comprehensively. To contribute to this field of research, a numerical approach based on the particle element model was used in present study. It would give us insights into what is happening to crack initiation, propagation and coalescence. Parallel bond model, a type of bonded-particle model, was used to numerically simulate the cracking process in rock-like material containing a single flaw under uniaxial vertical compression. The single flaw’s inclinations varied from 0° to 75° measured from the horizontal. As the uniaxial compression load was increased, multiple new microcracks initiated in the rock, which later propagated and eventually coalesced into longer macrocracks. The inclination of the pre-existing flaw was found to have a strong influence on the crack initiation and propagation patterns. The simulations replicated most of the phenomena observed in the physical experiments, such as the type, the initiation location and the initiate angle of the first cracks, as well as the development of hair-line cracks, which later evolved to macrocracks. Analyses of the parallel bond forces and displacement fields revealed some important mechanisms of the cracking processes. The first cracks typically initiated from the tensile stress concentration regions, in which the tensile stress was partially released after their initiation. The tensile stress concentration regions subsequently shifted outwards close to the propagating tips of the first cracks. The initiation and propagation of the first cracks would not significantly influence the compressive stress singularity at the flaw tips, which was the driving force of the initiation of secondary cracks. The initiation of microcracking zone consisting almost exclusively of micro-tensile cracks, and that of microcracking zone consisting of micro-tensile cracks and mixed micro-tensile and shear cracks, were found to be correlated with two distinct types of displacement fields, namely type I (DF_I) and type II (DF_II), respectively.     

半无限横观各向同性介质中多裂纹相互作用分析

为评估含矩形裂纹的半无限横观各向同性介质的局部强度和稳定性,采用基于双横观各向同性材料基本解的对偶边界元数值方法,分析了在沿裂纹面法向和切向均布力分别作用下矩形裂纹的应力强度因子及两个共面或平行的矩形裂纹的相互作用问题。通过数值计算考察了自由面对应力强度因子值的影响,以及裂纹间距、边长比及自由面对共面或平行双裂纹相互作用效应的影响。结果表明,自由面的存在引起该类裂纹应力强度因子值大于无限域情况;裂纹形状和裂纹间距对共面或平行双裂纹相互作用效应均有较明显的影响,但自由面对共面或平行双裂纹的相互作用效应均影响较小。     

断层端部裂纹扩展相似模拟试验及力学机理

基于相似理论制作符合实际地层力学性质的先存断层模型试件,分析在一定地应力条件下试件破坏过程;利用断层端部应力场理论,揭示先存断层构造产生相应破坏模式的机理。结果表明,随着载荷的增加,微裂纹逐渐发育扩展,扩展路径逐渐趋向于加载方向,在裂纹扩展的过程中会伴随产生多条分支路径,随后裂纹相互汇合贯通使试件破坏,利用断层端部应力场理论可以判定新产生的破裂方向,其与先存断层产生的主要破坏的角度具有一致性。     

An Integrated Study of the Dynamics of Electromagnetic and Acoustic Regimes During Failure of Complex Macrosystems Using Rock Blocks

The development of the failure process in complex macrosystems using large rock samples subjected to biaxial compression has been studied by means of electromagnetic radiation (EMR) and acoustic emission (AE). In order to increase the stage of macrofailure development, a special procedure of rock loading was used to reveal regularities of nucleation and evolution of electromagnetic and acoustic structures. The synchronised measurements of EMR and AE allowed the control of the stress–strain state in the rocks and the structural developments of fracturing. Non-homogeneous distribution of the rock spatial crystalline structure subject to load leads to a mosaic distribution of EMR and AE characteristics. As a result, the crack scale effect may be observed in the EMR and AE structure behaviours. The EMR and AE following the failure at different levels behave differently according to the difference in the scale and type of cracks. Intense high-frequency EMR pulses were recorded during the initial stage of microcrack generation occurring prior to major failure of material. This was not the case for AE. The nucleation and development of the macroscopic progressive failure evolution caused an alternation in energetic and frequencial properties of electromagnetic and acoustic events. It has been detected that the tensile cracks were more efficient than shear cracks in capacity of EMR generation. The analysis of self potentials allowed reaching the maximum of registered anomalous variations in the stage of microcracking interaction. This stage showed an increase in the EMR activity, which implies the nucleation of microcracks in various regions of rock interfaces. The gradual accumulation of these defects led to weakening some parts of the rock along with a disintegration of electric anomalies, increase of AE and a significant fluctuation in the rate of EMR. When crack concentration attains its critical value, which results in the formation of dangerous macroscopic failure of higher level, AE shows an intense activity as well as an EMR lower frequency. The hierarchical development of rock failure using the ratio of the average crack size and the mean distance between cracks as a statistical concentration criterion is used to control the boundary of the transition from small dispersed cracks accumulation to gradual crack merger and the formation of the main macrofailure. These results could be transferred into larger scale levels to forecast dynamic events in the earth crust.     

Modeling 3-D desiccation soil crack networks using a mesh fragmentation technique

The problem of desiccation cracks in soils has received increasing attention in the last few years, in both experimental investigations and modeling. Experimental research has been mainly focused on the behavior of slurries subjected to drying in plates of different shapes, sizes and thickness. The main objectives of these studies were to learn about the process of crack formation under controlled environmental conditions, and also to understand better the impact of different factors (e.g. soil type, boundary conditions, soil thickness) on the morphology of the crack network. As for the numerical modeling, different approaches have been proposed to describe the behavior of drying cracks in soils. One aspect that it is still difficult to simulate properly is the 3-D crack pattern typically observed in desiccated soils. In this work we present a numerical technique to model the behavior of drying soils. The proposed approach inserts high aspect ratio elements in-between standard elements of a finite element mesh. This mesh fragmentation technique can be easily adapted to standard finite element programs. We used this technique to analyze multiple case studies related to soil desiccation cracks developed under laboratory and field conditions. We focused our attention in some key factors that control the 3-D morphology of the drying cracks network in soils. We show that the proposed technique is able to simulate very satisfactorily the main patterns typically observed in cracked soils.     

Crack Initiation and Coalescence Behavior of Two Non-parallel Flaws

Crack initiation and coalescence behavior of rock or rock-like specimens containing artificial flaws under uniaxial compression have been subjects of intensive investigation in the past. Most of these investigations however focused on crack initiation and coalescence between two or more parallel flaws. Although there have been few experimental studies on non-parallel flaws, these studies did not address the influence of geometrical factors such as ligament length and ligament angle on the crack initiation and coalescence behavior of non-parallel flaws. To investigate whether the individual geometrical factors have similar effects on the crack initiation and coalescence behavior of both parallel and non-parallel flaws, we conducted uniaxial compression tests to investigate crack cracking and coalescence processes in rock like material containing two non-parallel flaws. The paper presents the influence of individual geometrical factors on the crack initiation process and coalescence pattern of non-parallel flaws. Initiation of primary first cracks from all the tips of the two flaws did not occur simultaneously in all the flaw configurations. The flaw configuration of the non-parallel flaws influences the crack initiation, crack trajectories and coalescence behavior. The crack coalescence pattern changes with an increasing ligament angle from indirect to shear crack or mixed tensile-shear crack to tensile crack coalescence. The chance of direct coalescence is reduced with an increase in ligament length. In conclusion, the crack initiation and coalescence behavior of prismatic rock-like specimens with non-parallel flaws, as influenced by the geometrical factors, are analogous to the cracking and coalescence pattern observed in specimens with parallel flaws.     

岩石剪切细观开裂演化与贯通机制分析

利用自主研发的煤岩剪切细观试验装置,以砂岩为研究对象,开展了不同饱和度数条件下的岩石剪切细观开裂演化与贯通机制试验研究,分析了砂岩剪切细观开裂演化过程和贯通机制,探讨了饱水系数对细观开裂和裂纹形态特征的影响。研究结果表明：剪切过程中,伴随着应力降,裂纹一般首先出现在剪切面中部,几条裂纹间断分布,距离较近的裂纹相互连通形成大裂纹,在应力继续下降的一瞬间,各裂纹连通形成贯通面;水的弱化作用影响了岩石的强度,使得试件底部出现较大的次级裂纹;饱水系数越大,分叉裂纹越多,使得试件的表面裂纹形态更加复杂,断裂面弯折段的数目越多,下端部次级裂纹越发育,整体损伤范围越大;细观上,局部独立裂纹贯通过程伴随着胶结颗粒岩桥的梁式旋转和弯曲折断,水的弱化作用,使得岩桥内部和外部微裂纹增多;随着饱水系数的增加,岩石剪切过程中出现的独立和次级裂纹的数目均呈增加趋势。     

水下收缩裂隙形成过程及裂缝充填模式研究

通过野外实地考察测试,对水下收缩裂隙整体形成过程、裂隙内充填物沉积模式、影响因素等进行了详细讨论,并且建立了相应的地质理论模型。水下收缩裂隙的形成共分4个阶段,依次为:泥水混合物进入低洼地带的初始混浊状态;沉积压实稳定阶段;水位线下降,盐度增大,裂隙形成阶段;沉积裂隙充填阶段。其中“异常高压作用”,对于初始裂隙的形成、沉积物孔隙水的有效排出以及主要渗流通道的发育起到了重要作用。单一泥质地层裂隙内充填物沉积模式与沙泥互层的多旋回地层略有差异,主要表现为沙层的润滑作用以及对早期裂隙内充填物类型的影响。上述两种地层裂隙内充填物沉积特征均与后期充注期次相对应,表现出很好的韵律性。裂隙纵剖面中生物发育层的出现,对裂隙内充填物的物理、化学性质将产生重要影响。     

DEM–SPH simulation of rock blasting

A numerical model is proposed for the simulation of rock blasting. A bonded particle system is utilized to mimic the behavior of rock. The particles interact at the contact points through normal and shear springs to simulate rock elasticity. To withstand the deviatoric stresses, the particles are glued to each other. If the applied force exceeds the contact strength, local failure occurs and microcracks are developed in the synthetic rock. For simulation of gas flow, the smooth particle hydrodynamic method is implemented. The interaction of gas particles with the rock grains is assumed to follow a perfect plastic collision model in which the initial momentum of the colliding particles is preserved. A detailed examination of the interaction of gas with blast hole is investigated. It is shown that the proposed hybrid model is capable of simulating the induced shock waves in the gas together with wave propagation in the rock material. The model successfully mimics crack propagation in rock. In particular, the crushed zone around the borehole, radial cracks, and surface spalling are all captured successfully. The results of numerical analysis suggest that gas–rock interaction can, in fact, generate a few successive compressive waves in the rock specimen, causing further extension of radial cracks with time as the weaker secondary and tertiary waves interact with the crack tips.     

Microcracks in ultrabasic rocks under uniaxial compressive stress

The initiation and propagation of microcracks under stress are highly dependent upon the mineralogical and textural characteristics of the various lithotypes. Detailed observation and quantification of microcracks before and after uniaxial compression test were conducted. A fresh olivine-rich harzburgite and a serpentinized dunite were analyzed, collected from the Pindos and Vourinos ophiolites (northern Greece) respectively, in order to compare their microcrack patterns. Quantitative analysis indicated that during uniaxial compression the intragranular microcracks, which are the dominating crack-type, are gradually transformed or organized into transgranular cracks. Some of the newly formed transgranular cracks may also be a result of the growth of existing grain-boundary cracks. The new intragranular microcracks in the olivine-rich harzburgite are oriented predominantly parallel to the compressive stress direction, while those in the serpentinized dunite show a scattered orientation presumably due to the mesh texture of this rock-type. The new transgranular cracks of both peridotites tend to be subparallel to the compressive stress direction, however, many of them show a random orientation due to the fact that they have been formed as a result of the propagation of grain-boundary cracks. The occurrence of the soft serpentine along fracture surfaces of olivine, when it is in assemblage with orthopyroxene, tends to absorb the applied stress hampering the development of microcracks in olivine. On the other hand in serpentinized peridotites, the microcracks are enhanced in olivine because it is surrounded by large amounts of the much softer and flexible serpentine. Microcracks are usually formed along the cleavage planes of orthopyroxene porphyroclasts, indicating that such crystallographic preferred orientations act as planes of weakness, controlling the direction of the crack paths. Cr-spinel grains likely comprise locations of initiation of microcracks due to their very hard nature and different mechanical behaviour relative to the surrounding silicate phases. Knowledge of the mineralogical and textural characteristics may assist in the prediction of potential development of failure surfaces of an ultrabasic rock in-service.     

压实黏土干燥裂隙及渗透性能研究

压实黏土干燥过程中产生的裂隙可能对渗透性能有较大影响。通过室内模拟试验研究发现,裂隙面积率、裂隙总长度和裂隙宽度随含水率减小而增大。压实黏土中裂隙可分为主裂隙和次裂隙2类,次裂隙出现前后裂隙参数的变化速率有较大差异。较宽裂隙在湿化后不能完全愈合,干湿循环过程使压实黏土产生了不可逆的变化。采用试验筒壁上涂阿尔代胶的方法可以有效模拟土样中裂隙的形成,并能较好地防止侧漏。渗透试验发现,一次干湿循环导致压实黏土的渗透系数增大将近2个数量级。湿化过程中干燥裂隙不能完全愈合及微裂隙的形成可能是导致渗透系数增大的主要原因。     

Influencing factors of geometrical structure of surface shrinkage cracks in clayey soils

In order to investigate the effects of temperature, thickness of soil layer, wetting and drying cycles and soil types on geometrical structure of surface shrinkage cracks in clayey soils, special software Crack Image Analysis System (CIAS) for analyzing shrinkage crack patterns was developed. Eight groups of soil samples were prepared and subjected to drying to crack in laboratory. The number of crack segments and intersections, average crack length, width and aggregate area, crack intensity factor (CIF), and the corresponding probability density functions (PDF) of these parameters were determined by analyzing several crack patterns derived from different experimental conditions. The results show that the soil cracking behavior and the geometrical structure of crack patterns are significantly influenced by these considered factors. There is a tendency of crack length, width, aggregate area and their most probable value (MPV) related to the PDF increases with temperature increase. With thicker soil layers, the average crack length, width, aggregate area and CIF are increased, and the main distribution ranges of crack length, width and aggregate area are increased also. When the soil is subjected to multiple wetting–drying cycles, the soil surface generates more irregular and coarse cracks. The number of short and narrow crack segments increases significantly, and the CIF decreases with an increase in wetting–drying cycles. It is also observed that the extent of cracking is directly related to the soil fines fraction and its plasticity index (I_P). The greatest CIF and crack width are observed in the soils with the largest fines fraction and highest I_P. In addition, the ratio of numbers of crack segments to intersections ranges from 1.5 to 2, and cracking mainly takes place in three stages: main-cracks initiation stage; sub-cracks initiation stage; terminal stable stage.     

Crack growth in Westerly granite during a cyclic loading test

To examine the fatigue process of granite, cylindrical Westerly granite specimens, 10 mm in diameter and 20 mm in length, were subjected to a cyclic loading test under uniaxial compression with a maximum of 140 MPa at room temperature, and crack growth patterns within them were analyzed by microscopic observation and image analysis techniques. The fatigue process is divided into three characteristic stages; a primary stage in which the upper peak strain increases at a decelerating rate (stage I), a second stage with linearly slight increasing rate of strain following stage I (stage II), and the third and final stage in which the upper peak strain increases at an accelerating rate and culminates in specimen failure (stage III). A series of prefailure specimens, of which the stage in the fatigue process was decided by monitoring the strain behavior during the test, were retrieved. In addition, these specimens were compared with specimens stressed to close to the breaking strength by monotonic compression to examine the characteristic features of fatigue. The fluorescent method was applied to identify microcracks within the specimens. The advantage of this method is to provide quick and accurate identification of microcracks with an optical microscope. Microcracks are detected based on a marked difference in brightness under ultraviolet light irradiation because they are fully filled with acrylic resin mixed with a fluorescent substance in advance. Thin sections, including the axis of the specimen, 10 × 20 mm, were prepared for detailed observation after the pretreatment of the method.The results were as follows. At the initial degradation stage, distinguishing crack growth was identified in quartz grains. It is estimated that the slowdown of the strain growth rate at this stage was caused by the decrease in crack growth, that is, the portions with cracking potentiality were damaged at the first or early loading, and no further damage occurred immediately following the first damage. At the second stage, no significant crack growth in quartz grains was identified. On the other hand, in feldspar grains, development of cracks in a preferential direction, parallel to the loading direction, was observed. However, they did not grow into intergranular cracks by cutting across the grain boundaries during this stage. Consequently, it was found that a gradual progress of microcracks within feldspar grains was dominant during the second stage, and this is because the strain growth rate was in a steady and long state. At the final accelerated stage, many intergranular cracks running parallel to the loading direction were identified. It is obvious that these long cracks were formed mainly by the linking and growth of the intragranular cracks in feldspars, which were generated during the former stages. Their formation takes the fatigue process from the second stage to the final stage with a sharp increase in strain, and their further development seemed to lead the whole specimen to ultimate fatigue failure.     

模拟岩石压剪状态下主次裂纹萌生开裂的扩展有限元法

压剪应力状态下,岩石类材料中常见两类裂纹：翼型张拉裂纹和次生压剪裂纹。基于扩展有限元方法（XFEM）,提出了模拟压剪裂纹面作用机制的扩展有限元位移增强方案,并给出了扩展有限元法分叉裂纹处理方法,分别用最大周向拉应力准则和Mohr-Coulomb准则判断张拉裂纹和压剪裂纹的萌生和扩展。基于Matlab平台编写了数值计算程序Betaxfem 2D,通过两个算例对所提方案进行了验证,所得结果与有限元法（FEM）计算结果吻合很好。模拟了单轴压缩载荷下含预制闭合裂纹试件的裂纹分叉、扩展过程,与试验结果的对比表明,所提方案可以模拟和预测岩石类材料张拉、压剪交互分叉裂纹的萌生和扩展行为。     

Coupled flow network and discrete element modeling of injection-induced crack propagation and coalescence in brittle rock

We present a numerical analysis on injection-induced crack propagation and coalescence in brittle rock. The DEM network coupling model in PFC is modified to capture the evolution of fracture geometry. An improved fluid flow model for fractured porous media is proposed and coupled with a bond-based DEM model to simulate the interactions among cracks induced by injecting fluid in two nearby flaws at identical injection rates. The material parameters are calibrated based on the macro-properties of Lac du Bonnet granite and KGD solution. A grain-based model, which generates larger grains from assembles of particles bonded together, is calibrated to identify the microscopic mechanical and hydraulic parameters of Lac du Bonnet granite such that the DEM model yields a ratio between the compressive and tensile strength consistent with experiments. The simulations of fluid injection reveal that the initial flaw direction plays a crucial role in crack interaction and coalescence pattern. When two initial flaws are aligned, cracks generally propagate faster. Some geometrical measures from graph theory are used to analyze the geometry and connectivity of the crack network. The results reveal that initial flaws in the same direction may lead to a well-connected crack network with higher global efficiency.

     

Numerical simulation of crack formation process in clays during drying and wetting

Clays generally crack upon drying and the cracks gradually close up because of expansion of the clays induced by rainfall infiltration. Based on the concept of air drainage ratio, we introduce an improved simplified consolidation theory for unsaturated soils and apply it to solve the crack formation problem. We present initial conditions, special consideration, and finite-element (FEM) formulations for simulation of cracks under axisymmetric conditions. Similar to finding solutions for sand-well consolidation problems, a prism of clays surrounded by polygonal distributed cracks is simplified as a cylinder. Numerical simulations using the FEM formulations are performed on the processes of crack occurrence, propagation, and closure during drying and wetting. To investigate the influence of air drainage ratio distribution, three different schemes are adopted for computation. It is found that the behaviour of cracks in clays during drying and wetting can be well represented using the approach proposed in the paper. The simplified consolidation theory used in the paper for unsaturated soils is more suitable for crack analysis than the general consolidation theory currently applied.