The three-dimensional structure of the solar corona

The surface where the radial component of the solar magnetic field changes sign is computed for a minimum corona. It is shown that (1) the projection of the folds of this surface onto the plane of the sky is consistent with the helmet structures observed during the eclipse of June 30, 1954; (2) there are type 1 and type 2 helmets, according to the well-known classification of coronal structures; (3) some elements of this sign-change surface of the radial field can be classified as so-called envelopes. The results obtained suggest that more complex coronal structures can be described in a similar way. An MHD model of polar plumes is considered.     

Solar 3.04 cm hydrogen line emission revealed in observations of the active region NOAA 10105

RATAN-600 observations of a microwave source located above the active region NOAA 10105 obtained on September 7–20, 2002 with a frequency resolution of ～10% have revealed a spectral feature near 3.04 cm that can be interpreted as a neutral hydrogen line. This feature was observed September 11, 2002, in both absorption and emission, and was detected in the spectra of various portions of the source (sunspot, flocculus, and background). The maximum line depth of (35 ± 5)% of the source brightness was observed at the start of the observations (9.2^h UT) in the flocculus in absorption. The line intensity decreased rapidly with time, becoming less than the measurement errors by 9.7^h UT. It is most likely that the 3.04 cm emission is related to a 2B chromospheric flare (M2.2 X-ray burst) observed at ～7.5^h UT in the floccular field, near the main sunspot of NOAA 10105. In this case, the total duration of the event was about two hours. These observations are consistent with earlier statistical studies, and refines these based on data with higher spatial resolution. Recommendations for further observational studies of the solar 3.04-cm hydrogen line are presented; requirements for theories of the 3.04 cm line taking into account nonequilibrium states of the active-region plasma are indicated.     

The microwave radiation of the corona above a large single sunspot in right- and left-circular polarization

Results of a study of the corona above a large sunspot in the active region NOAA 10105 with a penumbra size of ～70″ observed in September 2002 are reported. Maps of the active region and emission spectra were constructed using observational data from the NoRH, SSRT, and RATAN-600 telescopes. The sizes and brightness temperatures of the microwave emission above the sunspot are determined. SOHO/MDI and Kitt Peak magnetograms, as well as CaII K line images obtained at the Meudon Observatory, are compared. The derived characteristics are interpreted as cyclotron emission of thermal plasma, assuming a dipole structure for themagnetic field. A stable darkening at the sunspot center observed at short wavelengths and only in the ordinary emission mode was detected. A jump-like change was observed in the structure of the sunspot source in the ordinary emission mode, due to an increase in the size and spectral flux density. These results demand a fundamental correction of model concepts about cyclotron emission sources above sunspots, since they are at variance with the initial assumptions. It is suggested that, at the top of the transition region, the cyclotron emission source may be represented only by the third gyrolevel, but is observed in the extraordinary and ordinary emission modes (in contrast to the generally accepted model, which has a combination of the second and third gyrolevels). Taking into account the new observational data may allow us to refine model distributions of the main parameters of the coronal plasma above sunspots (the electron temperature and density) and information about the character of the magnetic field.     

Dynamics of the hard X-ray,gamma-ray,and microwave emission of solar flares produced by the active region NOAA 0069 in August 2002

Regularities have been searched for in the dynamics of characteristics of flare solar radiation during the development of the active region NOAA 0069 in the interval of August 14–24, 2002. The SONG (Solar Neutrons and Gamma rays) instrument onboard the Russian CORONAS-F Solar Observatory recorded hard X-ray and gamma-ray radiation in nine of the 30 flares of class above C5 in this active region within the indicated time interval. It was obtained that, in accordance with the development of the active region, the X- and gamma-ray flux tended to increase at the flare maxima while the hard X-ray spectral index tended to decrease; flares with a harder radiation spectrum occurred in the sunspot umbra, i.e., in the region with the strongest magnetic fields.     

Coronal mass ejection of April 27, 2003, and evolution of the active region NOAA 10338 in the radio

The results of a study of the coronal mass ejection (CME) of April 27, 2003, which was intrinsically associated with the active region NOAA 10338, are reported. Particular attention is paid to the initial stage of the event, which was accompanied by X-ray bursts of class C9.3 and C6.7, with the aim of determining the origin of CMEs. The energy source of the ejection was in the active region NOAA 10338. This region had a complicated and dynamic magnetic-field topology, and produced a series of CME-type events. The basis for the study was observations at wavelengths of 1.92–17 cm with high spatial resolution, 17″–20″, obtained on the Siberian Solar Radio Telescope (SSRT) and RATAN-600, together with simultaneous data from the Nobeyama Radio Heliograph (NoRH, wavelength 1.76 cm) and 195 Å ultraviolet data from the TRACE spacecraft. The development of the event was followed over three hours, first through observations against the disk at heights of 10,000–100,000 km from the photosphere, then in the post-limb stage to distances of the order of 10⁶ km from the solar center, i.e., in the zone inaccessible to the LASCO coronographs. According to the radio observations, ～10 min before the beginning of the event, the radio structure of the active region NOAA 10338 had an S-shaped (sigmoid) configuration. A rising, gradually expanding dark loop originated at the points where this structure was observed; according to the TRACE data, this loop initiated the event. Subsequently, the structure of the radio image drastically changed, suggesting that coronal plasma was heated and cooled at different sites of the emission region (or was shielded by the cooler material of the ejection). Profiles of the burst that accompanied the ejection are presented for four points in the region. The post-limb part of the event first had a compact (～50″) structure receding from the Sun and visible to distances ～10⁶ km. An asymmetric loop was then formed, with its material falling back onto the Sun at the end of the event. The brightness temperature of the loop was ～15 × 10³ K, and its emission was weakly polarized (P ≈16%). The mean speed of the material was 160 km/s. It is concluded that the observations of the event of April 27, 2003 are most consistent with the model of Amari et al., in which the formation of an eruptive twisted magnetic rope, taken to be responsible for CME-type events, is explained by the emergence of new magnetic flux within an old field of opposite polarity.     

Formation of several current sheets preceding a series of flares above the active region AR 0365

We have carried out 3D MHD modeling of the solar corona above the active region AR 0365 before a series of flares observed on May 26–27, 2003. Maps of the evolving photospheric magnetic fields preceding the flares were used as boundary conditions. An emergence of new flux equal to ～1.5 × 10²² Maxwell preceded the observed series of X-ray flares. Modeling a large region 4 × 10¹⁰ cm in size demonstrates the formation of several current sheets in the vicinities of coronal Xlines, both already existing in the initial potential field and arising due to the emergence of the new magnetic flux. Each current sheet could be responsible for an elementary flare.     

The structure of solar filaments. Prominences in the corona free from external magnetic field

The new approach to the modeling of quiescent solar prominences is proposed. We solve the inverse magnetohydrostatic problem, when the pressure, density and temperature of plasma in the filament are calculated from the equilibrium equations using the given magnetic structure (magnetic flux function is proposed to be known). The new exact nonlinear solutions for dense (n ≈ (2?3) × 10¹¹ cm^?3) and cold (T ≈ (5?10) × 10³ K) filaments, embedded in the plan, vertically stratified atmosphere (hot solar corona) free of magnetic field, are derived. The filaments are stretched along the horizontal axisy(the translational symmetry is assumed: ?/?y = 0) and located parallel to and above a photospheric, magnetic polarity reversal line. The magnetic field lines have a structure of magnetic flux rope with helical field lines in three-dimensional space; the strength of magnetic field falls rapidly with distance from a rope axis. No external longitudinal magnetic field is needed to equilibrate the prominence. The net electric current along the filament is equal to zero. The model of magnetic arcade with the deflection (sag) on the top, proposed by Pikelner (1971) as a basic form of normal prominence, is calculated also using the method proposed. It is shown that such magnetic arcade, having the magnetic field strength of few gauss only, can effectively maintain the equilibrium of cool dense filament at the heights about 50–60 Mm.     

Magnetic-field variations in the active region NOAA 10486 and their relationship to X-ray flares and coronal mass ejections

SOHO/MDI magnetograms are used to analyze the time variations in the magnetic parameters of the active region (AR) NOAA 10486, which was part of a large activity complex that passed over the solar disk from October 26 to 31, 2003, during solar cycle 23. The results are compared with X-ray flares in the AR and the parameters of coronal mass ejections associated with the AR. The time variations in the distributions of themagnetic-field strengths associated with the total magnetic flux (Fa), the flux imbalance between the northern and southern polarities (Im), the complexity of the field, as a measure of the mutual overlapping of the opposite polarities (Co), and the tilt angle of the magnetic axis (An) are considered. The time variations in the free energy accumulated in current sheets of ARs were traced using a parameter introduced for this purpose (Sh). The following results were obtained. First, the parameters Fa, Im, Co, An, and Sh quantitatively describe the current state of the AR and can be used to trace and analyze the dynamical evolution of its magnetic field. Second, variations in the magnetic-field-strength distributions and the mean values of Fa, Im, Co, An, and Sh are associated with flares and coronal mass ejections, and the variations have considerable amplitudes. Third, the parameter Sh characterizing the degree to which the magnetic field is non-potential in regions adjacent to the main neutral line increases before eruptive events, and is thus particular interest for monitoring the states of ARs in real time. Fourth, the magnetic field of the AR manifests a sort of quasi-elasticity, so that the field structure is restored after active events, on average, within 1–3 h.     

Crustal structure in the Carpatho-Pannonian region: insights from three-dimensional gravity modelling and their geodynamic significance

A three-dimensional gravity modelling of the Carpatho-Pannonian region was carried out to get a better image of the Moho boundary and the most prominent intra-crustal density heterogeneities. At first, only the major density boundaries were considered: the bottom of the Tertiary basin fill, the Moho discontinuity and the lithosphere to asthenosphere boundary. Density contrasts were represented by relative densities. The improved density model shows a transitional unit of high density at the base of the crust along the Teisseyre-Tornquist Zone. In the Western Carpathians, an extensive, relatively low-density unit was inferred in mid-crustal levels. The border zone between the Southern Carpathians and the Transylvanian basin is characterized by a sharp, step-like contact of the two crustal units. The Moho configuration reveals important information on the tectonic evolution of the region. Zones of continental collision are represented by thick Moho roots (Eastern Alps, Eastern Carpathians). Transpressional orogenic segments, however, are different: in the Western Carpathians, the Moho is a flat surface; in the Dinarides, a medium Moho root is observed; the Southern Carpathians are characterized by a thick crustal root. The differences are explained with the presence or absence of “subductible” oceanic crust along the Carpathians during the extrusion of Pannonian blocks.     

三维非均匀结构体对面波的多次散射

在面波层析成像和传统面波勘探中,都假定地球或浅层探测对象是一个均匀分层的多层介质模型,而实际上,介质的横向不均匀性广泛存在于从地球直到超声尺度的各种范围内.这里采用模式耦合的方法,研究了均匀半空间和二层介质中(也可以是多层的),三维非均匀体对Rayleigh面波的多次散射,计算了频率和时间域中的散射波场,并分析了散射波场的特点,为散射面波的应用提供了初步的理论基础.     

Moho depths and three-dimensional velocity structure of the crust and upper mantle beneath the Baikal region,from local tomography

We studied the 3D velocity structure of the crust and uppermost mantle beneath the Baikal region using tomographic inversion of ∼25,000 P and S arrivals from more than 1200 events recorded by 86 stations of three local seismological networks. Simultaneous iterative inversion with a new source location algorithm yielded 3D images of P and S velocity anomalies in the crust and upper mantle, a 2D model of Moho depths, and corrections to source coordinates and origin times. The resolving power of the algorithm, its stability against variations in the starting model, and the reliability of the final results were checked in several tests. The 3D velocity structure shows a well-pronounced low-velocity zone in the crust and uppermost mantle beneath the southwestern flank of the Baikal rift which matches the area of Cenozoic volcanism and a high velocity zone beneath the Siberian craton. The Moho depth pattern fits the surface tectonic elements with thinner crust along Lake Baikal and under the Busiyngol and Tunka basins and thicker crust beneath the East Sayan and Transbaikalian mountains and under the Primorsky ridge on the southern craton border.     

Conductive structure of Ukrainian Carpathians from EM observations

Geomagnetic variation observations in the Carpathian region gave the data for tracing the axis of a 1200 km long Carpatian electrical conductivity anomaly (CA) and estimation of its integral longitudinal conductivity (~2 × 10⁸ S × m). We made also 35 magnetotelluric soundings (MTS) in the south-east part of the Ukrainian Carpathians. The shape of MTS curves regularly changes from south-west to north-east forming 6 zones of identical behaviour. Most interesting MTS curves are above the CA. The longitudinal curves define the CA at a depth of 10 km; the transverse ones are not sensitive to crustal CA but they define a mantle conductor at a depth of 100–200 km with conductance ~5000 S which can be identified with the asthenosphere. The principal crustal conductors manifested by MTS data in Carpatians are CA subducting in south-west direction from moderately conductive sediments and a conductive zone of Transcarpathian deep fault. Correlation of electrical conductivity structure with seismicity is discussed.     

Retrieval of time series three-dimensional landslide surface displacements from multi-angular SAR observations

A major limitation for wide application of Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) remote sensing in mapping landslide surface displacements is the intrinsic gap between the ultimate objective of measuring three-dimensional displacements and the limited capability of detecting only one or two-dimensional displacements by repeat-pass SAR observations of identical imaging geometries. Although multi-orbit SAR observations of dissimilar viewing geometries can be jointly analyzed to inverse the three-dimensional displacements, the reliability of inversion results might be highly questionable in case of continuous motion because of the usually asynchronous acquisitions of multi-orbit SAR datasets. Aiming at this problem, we proposed an approach of retrieving time series three-dimensional displacements from multi-angular SAR datasets for step-like landslides in the Three Gorges area in this article. Firstly, time series displacements of a common ground target in the azimuth and line-of-sight (LOS) direction can be estimated using traditional methods of SAR interferometry (InSAR) and SAR pixel offset tracking (POT), respectively. Then, a spline fitting and interpolation procedure was employed to parameterize the displacement history in the sliding/dormant periods of step-like landslides and estimate displacements from multi-angular observations for identical date series. Finally, three-dimensional displacements can be inverted from these synchronized multi-angular measured displacements in traditional ways. As a case study, the proposed method was applied to retrieve the three-dimensional displacements history of the Shuping landslide in the Three Gorges area, China. Comparisons between SAR-measured displacements and measurements of global positioning system (GPS) showed good agreement. Furthermore, temporal correlation analyses suggest that reservoir water level fluctuation and rainfall are the two most important impact factors for the Shuping landslide stability.     

Polarization of the solar corona in the green line: Contradiction between theory and observations

The main results of polarization observations in the 530.3-nm line and their role in studying the physical conditions, structure, and magnetic field in the solar corona are discussed. A serious discrepancy between the observations and widely-accepted theoretical concepts was revealed: the theory predicts that the orientation of the polarization electric vector should be nearly radial, in contradiction with the observational results. In particular, the polarization vectors for both the green line and white-light corona in high-latitude streamers were tangential during the eclipse of July 11, 1991. The dependence of the degree of polarization on the angle between the radial direction and the magnetic-field vector was calculated without any a priori assumptions about the configuration of coronal fields. This theoretical analysis of the polarization-vector orientation for magnetic-dipole emission in the green line are in agreement with results obtained previously in other studies. Some ways to resolve the observed discrepancies are discussed.     

Regional soil moisture retrievals and simulations from assimilation of satellite microwave brightness temperature observations

Low-frequency microwave satellite observations are sensitive to land surface soil moisture (SM). Using satellite microwave brightness temperature observations to improve SM simulations of numerical weather, climate and hydrological predictions is one of the most active research areas of the geoscience community. In this paper, Yan and Jins’ (J Radio Sci 19(4):386–392, 2004) theory on the relationship between satellite microwave remote sensing polarization index and SM is used to estimate land surface SM values from the advanced microwave scanning radiometer-E (AMSR-E) brightness temperature data. With consideration of soil texture, surface roughness, optical thickness, and the monthly means of NASA AMSR-E SM data products, the regional daily land surface SM values are estimated over the eastern part of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. The resulting SM retrievals are better than the NASA daily AMSR-E SM product. The retrieved SM values are generally lower than the ground measurements from the Maqu Station (33.85°N, 102.57°E) and the Tanglha Station (33.07°N, 91.94°E) and the US NCEP reanalysis data, but the temporal variations of the retrieved SM demonstrate more realistic response to the observed precipitation events. In order to improve the land surface SM simulating ability of the weather research and forecasting model, the retrieved SM was assimilated into the Noah land surface model by the Newtonian relaxation (NR) method. A direct insertion method was also applied for comparison. The results indicate that fine-tuning the quality factor in the NR method improves the simulated SM values most for desert areas, followed by grasslands, and shrub and grass mixed zones at the regional scale. At the temporal scale, the NR method decreased the root mean square error between the simulated SM and actual observed SM by 0.03 and 0.07 m³/m³ at the Maqu and Tanglha Stations, respectively, and the temporal variation of simulated SM values was much closer to the ground-measured SM values.     

The structure of the upper crust in the Alps-Apennines boundary region deduced from refraction seismic data

Analysis of data gathered during the 1983 European Geotraverse southern segment (EGT-S '83) experiments in the region extending from the Emilia-Liguria Apennines to the western Alpine Arc together with data from seismic profiles in the northwestern Apennines accumulated within the framework of the Alps-Apennines Orogene Study Group indicate new details on the structure of the upper crust east and west of the Alps-Apennines boundary.The main results of this analysis centre on two areas. In the Piedmont Tertiary Basin we could determine the depocenter configurations of the 6–7 km thick terrigenous sequence and differentiate the tectonic units in the Piedmont (Alpine) and the Ligurian (Apennine) domains within the basement. In the other area, the Insubric domain underneath the Ligurian nappes of the northern Apennines, we found indications of tectonic doubling within the terrigenous-carbonate sequence in which thrusting attenuates towards the underlying basement, detected at a depth of 12–15 km. In addition, we found that, on a line from the Emilia Apennines to the Monferrato Hills, displacement of the Ligurian nappes over the Insubric domain diminishes to nearly one-third its original extent.     

The active region Orion KL in polarized emission in the Orion

The fine structure of the active region in the Orion KL gas-dust complex has been measured in polarized H₂O maser emission (epoch December 12, 1998) with an angular resolution of 0.15 mas, or 0.07 AU, and a velocity resolution of 0.05 km/s. The maser emission is concentrated in a line with ΔV = 0.45 km/s, V _LSR = 7.65 km/s, and a flux density of F = 2.1 MJy. The structure consists of a compact source (ejector), highly collimated bipolar outflow, and a toroidal component. The brightness temperature of the ejector is T _b = 2 × 10¹⁶ K, and its degree of linear polarization reaches m ≈ 20%. The variation of the polarization angle across the profile is dX/dV = ?23°/(km/s), which considerably exceeds the Faraday rotation in the HII region foreground to the molecular cloud. The observed “rotation” is explained as an effect of different orientations for the polarization of the ejected outflows. The brightness temperature of the bipolar outflow is T _b ≈ 10¹⁴ K, while that of individual components is T _b ≈ 10¹⁵ K. The degree of polarization in the components exceeds that of the ejector and reaches m ≈ 50%. The position angle of the polarization is X ≈ 45° relative to the outflow. The torus, which is observed edge-on, has a diameter of 0.38 AU and a thickness of 0.08 AU. The brightness temperature of the tangential directions in the torus is T _b ≈ 5 × 10¹⁵ K, and the rotational velocity is V _rot ≈ 0.02 km/s. The degree of polarization is m ≈ 40%, and its position angle relative to the azimuthal plane is X ≈ 43°. The relative deviations of the polarization plane in the bipolar outflow and torus relative to the pumping direction are nearly the same and are determined by Faraday rotation within the HII region.     

Apparent angular sizes of the sources of microwave subsecond pulses and electron-density fluctuations in the lower solar corona

Data on the visible angular sizes of sources of microwave subsecond pulses (MSPs) obtained using the Siberian Solar Radio Telescope are analyzed assuming a dominant role for scattering on small-scale electron-density inhomogeneities in the solar corona. The observed dependence of the angular sizes of MSPs on the distance from the solar-disk center confirms that the MSP sources are localized in low layers of the solar corona. Both absolute and fractional levels of small-scale electron-density fluctuations have been estimated. These estimates suggest that flicker-noise-type turbulence power spectra are formed in the lower corona, and are preserved in the solar-wind acceleration region. A composite dependence of the scattering angle of a sounding radio wave on distance from the Sun is presented.     

Lithosphere structure of European sedimentary basins from regional three-dimensional gravity modelling

A three-dimensional (3D) density model, approximated by two regional layers—the sedimentary cover and the crystalline crust (offshore, a sea-water layer was added), has been constructed in 1° averaging for the whole European continent. The crustal model is based on simplified velocity model represented by structure maps for main seismic horizons—the “seismic” basement and the Moho boundary. Laterally varying average density is assumed inside the model layers. Residual gravity anomalies, obtained by subtraction of the crustal gravity effect from the observed field, characterize the density heterogeneities in the upper mantle. Mantle anomalies are shown to correlate with the upper mantle velocity inhomogeneities revealed from seismic tomography data and geothermal data. Considering the type of mantle anomaly, specific features of the evolution and type of isostatic compensation, the sedimentary basins in Europe may be related into some groups: deep sedimentary basins located in the East European Platform and its northern and eastern margins (Peri-Caspian, Dnieper–Donets, Barents Sea Basins, Fore–Ural Trough) with no significant mantle anomalies; basins located on the activated thin crust of Variscan Western Europe and Mediterranean area with negative mantle anomalies of −150 to −200×10⁻⁵ ms⁻² amplitude and the basins associated with suture zones at the western and southern margins of the East European Platform (Polish Trough, South Caspian Basin) characterized by positive mantle anomalies of 50–150×10⁻⁵ ms⁻² magnitude. An analysis of the main features of the lithosphere structure of the basins in Europe and type of the compensation has been carried out.     

The major features of the crustal structure in north-eastern Venezuela from deep wide-angle seismic observations and gravity modelling

Venezuela is located on the plate boundary zone between the South American continent and the Caribbean plate. A relative movement of 2 cm/year is accommodated by a system of strike–slip faults running from the Andes to the Gulf of Paria. The Interior Range, a moderate-height mountain range, separates the Oriental Basin from the Caribbean. To the south, predominantly Precambrian rocks are outcropping in the Guayana Shield south of the Orinoco River. Results of deep wide-angle seismic measurements for the region were obtained during field campaigns in 1998 (ECOGUAY) for the Guayana Shield and in 2001 (ECCO) for the Oriental Basin. The total crustal thickness decreases from 45 km beneath the Guayana Shield, to 39 km at the Orinoco River, and 36 km close to El Tigre, in the center of the Oriental Basin. The average crustal velocity decreases in the same sense from 6.5 to 5.95 km/s. Detailed information was obtained on the velocity distribution within the Oriental Basin. Velocities are as low as 2.2 km/s for the uppermost 2 km, 4.5 km/s down to 4 km in depth, and a maximum depth of 13 km was derived for material with seismic velocities up to 5.9 km/s, interpreted as the base of the sedimentary basin. A gravimetric model confirms the structures derived from the seismic data. Discrete increases in sedimentary thickness along the basin may be associated to extension processes during the passive margin phase in the Cretaceous, or during earlier extension phases.