高阶交错网格有限差分弹性波场模拟的精度分析

交错网格波场数值模拟是目前地震正演中广泛使用的方法,为对比分析不同阶数的差分格式下产生的计算效率和精度差异,重新推导了弹性波方程的4种时间4阶、空间2N阶的差分公式及系数,并计算了他们的稳定性条件。利用这4种差分格式进行弹性波场数值模拟,对比分析了波场快照、合成地震记录及CPU时间。结果表明:时间4阶、空间6+6阶精度的交错网格有限差分方法在进行地震波场数值模拟时具有较高的计算精度和计算效率。      

起伏地表二维瑞雷面波正演模拟及波场分析

采用高精度交错网格有限差分法,建立了在起伏地表条件下瑞雷面波数值模拟的自由边界条件,通过对倾斜二层模型模拟的结果与解析解对比,二者完全一致,由此证明了起伏地表下瑞雷面波数值模拟的正确性。在此基础之上,模拟并分析了小凸起与小凹陷模型条件下,瑞雷面波的波场传播特征。通过分析得出瑞雷面波在这二种地形传播时,都存在反射、波型转换,以及能量再分配。因此,在起伏地表条件下,利用瑞雷面波进行勘探时要考虑起伏地表对瑞雷面波波场的影响。     

基于贴体全交错网格的起伏地表正演模拟影响因素

贴体网格有限差分正演模拟算法不仅能够精确模拟任意起伏地形下的波场特征,且计算效率较高,是一种很有应用前景的处理西部复杂地表问题的方法;然而,目前求解波动方程时常用的同位网格和标准交错网格,在处理贴体网格起伏地表正演模拟时存在诸多问题。为此,将全交错网格引入到曲线坐标系下,避免了标准交错网格的插值误差和同位网格中奇偶失联引起的高频振荡现象,提高了模拟精度,减小了算法实现的复杂度。在自由边界条件实施时,采用牵引力镜像法计算速度分量,速度自由边界条件配合紧致交错差分格式更新应力分量,得到了较好的效果。随后,重点研究了贴体全交错网格正演模拟算法的影响因素,考虑了网格正交性、网格间距和网格拼接等的影响,并取得了如下认识：算法对网格的正交性没有过分要求;网格间距的突变会引起虚假反射的产生;不同类型的网格拼接对模拟结果不会造成明显的影响。     

基于PML边界下的弹性及黏弹性TTI介质波场模拟

基于一阶速度-应力波动方程,采用高阶交错网格有限差分数值模拟方法,对弹性及黏弹性TTI介质进行正演数值模拟。模拟时采用完全匹配层吸收边界条件(PML)消除边界反射。同时设计了层状介质模型、断层模型,通过模型的正演计算,得到了不同时刻的地震波波场快照及合成地震记录,分析其波场运动学及动力学特征。模拟结果表明,交错网格有限差分法可以很好地完成对复杂介质的波场模拟,具有较高的精度和可靠性。     

Multiscale mixed/mimetic methods on corner-point grids

Multiscale simulation is a promising approach to facilitate direct simulation of large and complex grid models for highly heterogeneous petroleum reservoirs. Unlike traditional simulation, approaches based on upscaling/downscaling, multiscale methods seek to solve the full flow problem by incorporating subscale heterogeneities into local discrete approximation spaces. We consider a multiscale formulation based on a hierarchical grid approach, where basis functions with subgrid resolution are computed numerically to correctly and accurately account for subscale variations from an underlying (fine-scale) geomodel when solving the global flow equations on a coarse grid. By using multiscale basis functions to discretise the global flow equations on a (moderately sized) coarse grid, one can retain the efficiency of an upscaling method and, at the same time, produce detailed and conservative velocity fields on the underlying fine grid. For pressure equations, the multiscale mixed finite-element method (MsMFEM) has been shown to be a particularly versatile approach. In this paper, we extend the method to corner-point grids, which is the industry standard for modelling complex reservoir geology. To implement MsMFEM, one needs a discretisation method for solving local flow problems on the underlying fine grids. In principle, any stable and conservative method can be used. Here, we use a mimetic discretisation, which is a generalisation of mixed finite elements that gives a discrete inner product, allows for polyhedral elements, and can (easily) be extended to curved grid faces. The coarse grid can, in principle, be any partition of the subgrid, where each coarse block is a connected collection of subgrid cells. However, we argue that, when generating coarse grids, one should follow certain simple guidelines to achieve improved accuracy. We discuss partitioning in both index space and physical space and suggest simple processing techniques. The versatility and accuracy of the new multiscale mixed methodology is demonstrated on two corner-point models: a small Y-shaped sector model and a complex model of a layered sedimentary bed. A variety of coarse grids, both violating and obeying the above mentioned guidelines, are employed. The MsMFEM solutions are compared with a reference solution obtained by direct simulation on the subgrid.     

起伏地形下可控源音频大地电磁三维数值模拟

起伏地形对可控源音频大地电磁(CSAMT)响应具有强烈的影响,因此在CSAMT数据处理解释时需要考虑地形。同时,实际的地下地质情况和地表的地形情况通常比较复杂,地质结构和地形大部分情况下都是三维的。在水平地表三维有限差分CSAMT数值模拟算法的基础上,推导了利用地下交错网格采样点处的总磁场计算起伏地形下空气-地下介质分界面处的总电场和总磁场的表达式,从而实现了起伏地形下三维CSAMT数值模拟算法。在算法实现过程中,采用伪δ函数代替麦克斯韦方程中的场源项和直接计算总场的策略,避免了原有的将总场分离成背景场和二次场的策略在复杂地质条件下难以选择合适背景电阻率的问题。为了直接模拟总场,起伏地形下三维CSAMT数值模拟算法给出了新的三维正演方程的边界条件。将模拟水平地表三维异常体和三维山峰地形两个理论模型得到的响应结果与前人算法的计算结果进行对比,验证了所实现算法的正确性和有效性。     

Seismic wave propagation in laterally inhomogeneous poroelastic media via BIEM

This work addresses in‐plane pressure P and vertically polarized shear SV seismic wave propagation in a finite, laterally inhomogeneous, multilayered poroelastic geological region resting on the homogeneous elastic half‐space. The particular approach followed here is based on a combination of the (i) viscoelastic approximation (isomorphism) to Biot's equations of dynamic poroelasticity and on the (ii) boundary integral equation method (BIEM) using frequency‐dependent fundamental solutions of the governing wave equations. The problem is formulated under plane strain conditions and time‐harmonic motions are assumed. Validation of the viscoelastic isomorphism and verification of the BIEM is done by solution of benchmark examples. These simulation studies reveal that the proposed methodology is able to depict a sensitivity of the seismic signals recovered to the following parameters: (i) poroelastic properties of fluid saturated layers; (ii) lateral geological inhomogeneity; (iii) surface topography and (iv) frequency content and direction of the incident wave. It is concluded that the combination of viscoelastic isomorphism with BIEM software provides an effective numerical tool for evaluating site‐effect phenomena in multilayered, fluid saturated geological regions with complex geometry. The numerical results obtained demonstrate that dynamic poroelasticity interacting with other physical peculiarities of the Earth's surface layers, such as lateral heterogeneity, material properties along the wave path, local geological profile and type of elastic wave, gives rise to complex seismic signals on the free surface at the site of interest. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

准P波方程紧致交错网格井间地震波场模拟及边界条件

研究井间地震波场的形成过程以及波场的传播机理、规律,对于指导实际井间地震勘探有着重要的意义.基于具有垂直对称轴的横向各向同性(VTI)介质中的一阶准P波方程,应用具有无条件稳定性质的紧致交错网格隐式差分格式求解该方程.重点研究了紧致交错网格求解该方程的完全匹配层(PML)吸收边界条件,在此基础上实现了VTI介质中一阶准P波方程的井间地震波场的正演模拟.数值算例表明:紧致交错网格能精准模拟VTI介质中准P波的传播过程,得到高精度的正演结果.一阶准P波方程能以足够的精度描述VTI介质中准P波特征.完全匹配层吸收边界能有效地解决人工边界问题,是一种高效的边界吸收算法.     

Linking dynamic elastic parameters to static state of stress: toward an integrated approach to subsurface stress analysis

Stress is the most important parameter to understand basin dynamics and the evolution of hydrocarbon systems. The state of stress can be quantified by numerical geo-mechanical modelling techniques. These techniques require static elastic parameters of the rocks as input, while tectonic and gravitational forces are given as explicit boundary conditions to compute the local state of stress at different scales. We developed a technique to determine the density and elastic constants at seismic frequencies using full Zoeppritz inversion on angle-dependent seismic reflection data. The dynamic elastic parameters as obtained from seismic data differ from their static equivalents, which are necessary to determine the static state of stress. The dynamic elastic parameters are related to their static equivalents through experimentally obtained relations. In these rock-physics experiments, the static and dynamic elastic parameters are measured simultaneously during different external loading conditions. The experiments used here are all carried out in a tri-axial pressure machine under equal axial stresses. Then pre-stack seismic data analysis in combination with the relation between the static and dynamic elastic parameters, from the rock-physics experiments, provides the input parameters for geo-mechanical modelling.     

Rheological structure and dynamical response of the DSS profile BALTIC in the SE Fennoscandian Shield

Numerical modelling was applied to study the present-day state of stress and deformation under different tectonic loading conditions at the seismic BALTIC–SKJ profile in south-eastern Finland and in Estonia. The finite element method was used to solve the numerical problem. The two-dimensional model was constructed using the results from both seismic and thermal studies along the profile. The model is 700 km long and 200 km deep, and is roughly divided into an inhomogeneous, laterally layered crust and a homogeneous mantle lithosphere. Both the linear elastic and non-linear elasto-plastic rheologies were used. Elasto-plasticity was achieved by calculating a rheological strength as a function of depth along the profile. Different tectonic load cases were analysed with displacement, force and pressure type boundary conditions. Also, the effect of different strain rates was investigated. The results suggest that even with relatively low compressive stress levels the lower crust deforms in a plastic manner for a wet crustal rheology. When applying a dry crustal rheology, plastic yielding is attained only with much higher stress fields.     

Comparison of transmitting boundaries in dynamic finite element analyses using explicit time integration

Explicit time integration schemes provide an efficient solution to non-linear dynamic finite element analyses of geotechnical problems especially when high frequency response is important. Such explicit time integration schemes require one of two distinct transmitting boundary formulations to overcome the problem of radiation damping. These are the superposition boundary approach, which involves the cancellation of the reflected waves by combining the solutions of two different boundary conditions and the viscous boundary approach, which involves the absorption of incident wave energy by frequency independent viscous dashpots. The theoretical justification of these two approaches and their means of implementation are reviewed. The solutions obtained using the two different boundary approaches to the problem of a rigid massless circular footing vibrating on an elastic half-space are compared with an independent theoretical solution. The performance of the boundaries for problems involving step loading is also examined and the implications for any loading pattern with a non-zero time average are discussed.     

交错网格任意阶导数有限差分格式及差分系数推导

交错网格有限差分算法以其高效、精确、实用等优点在地震波数值模拟中得到广泛应用。目前交错网格有限差分的精度已达到时间4阶、空间2N阶;然而在求空间三次导数时,差分格式实际上并未达到所谓的2N阶精度,而是采用了低阶的差分格式及差分系数,这样有利于提高大尺度空间正演时的计算效率;但从计算精度的角度考虑,有必要推导出准确的满足2N阶精度的交错网格有限差分格式及差分系数,以得到更高精度的正演结果。笔者利用Taylor公式展开首次推导出了可导函数任意次导数的任意偶数阶精度的差分近似式及相应的差分系数,从而完善了常规高精度交错网格有限差分算法。采用新推导的交错网格有限差分格式得到的正演波形与解析解进行了对比,证明了新推导的差分格式的正确性,并与常规差分格式的正演波形进行了比较,结果显示,新推导出的交错网格有限差分格式模拟结果稳定性好,精度更高。     

Low dispersive modeling of Rayleigh waves on partly staggered grids

In elastic media, finite-difference (FD) implementations of free-surface (FS) boundary conditions on partly staggered grid (PSG) use the highly dispersive vacuum formulation (VPSG). The FS boundary is embedded into a “vacuum” grid layer (null Lame’s constants and negligible density values) where the discretized equations of motion allow computing surface displacements. We place a new set of compound (stress-displacement) nodes along a planar FS and use unilateral mimetic FD discretization of the zero-traction conditions for displacement computation (MPSG). At interior nodes, MPSG reduces to standard VPSG methods and applies fourth-order centered FD along cell diagonals for staggered differentiation combined with nodal second-order FD in time. We perform a dispersion analysis of these methods on a Lamb’s problem and estimate dispersion curves from the phase difference of windowed numerical Rayleigh pulses at two FS receivers. For a given grid sampling criterion (e.g., six or ten nodes per reference S wavelength λ ^S), MPSG dispersion errors are only a quarter of the VPSG method. We also quantify root-mean-square (RMS) misfits of numerical time series relative to analytical waveforms. MPSG RMS misfits barely exceed 10 % when nine nodes sample the minimum S wavelength $\lambda _{\text {MIN}}^{\mathrm {S}}$ in transit (along distances $\sim $ 145 $\lambda _{\text {MIN}}^{\mathrm {S}}$ ). In same tests, VPSG RMS misfits exceed 70 %. We additionally compare MPSG to a consistently fourth-order mimetic method designed on a standard staggered grid. The latter equates the former’s dispersion errors on grids twice denser and shows higher RMS precision only on grids with six or less nodes per $\lambda _{\text {MIN}}^{\mathrm {S}}$ .     

二维起伏地表条件下坐标变换法直流电场数值模拟

针对有限差分方法处理不规则边界难的问题,引入曲化平的思想,实现了一种新的基于坐标变换法的起伏地表条件下直流电场数值模拟方法.通过坐标变换,将物理空间的直流电场满足的基本方程和边界条件变换到计算空间;在计算空间内,利用有限差分方法对变换后的方程和边界条件进行数值分析;最后,将计算结果由计算空间映射回物理空间.精度分析及计算实例表明:本文提出的算法精度高,计算误差主要集中在源附近,且当源离地表较近时平均相对误差在1.0%以下;计算结果满足起伏地表条件下电位及视电阻率的分布规律.     

Finite element simulations of logging-while-drilling and extra-deep azimuthal resistivity measurements using non-fitting grids

We propose a discretization technique using non-fitting grids to simulate magnetic field-based resistivity logging measurements. Non-fitting grids are convenient because they are simpler to generate and handle than fitting grids when the geometry is complex. On the other side, fitting grids have been historically preferred because they offer additional accuracy for a fixed problem size in the general case. In this work, we analyse the use of non-fitting grids to simulate the response of logging instruments that are based on magnetic field resistivity measurements using 2.5D Maxwell’s equations. We provide various examples demonstrating that, for these applications, if the finite element matrix coefficients are properly integrated, the accuracy loss due to the use of non-fitting grids is negligible compared to the case where fitting grids are employed.     

Development of an infinite element boundary to model gravity for subsurface civil engineering applications

The accurate modelling of gravity is of crucial importance for a variety of issues including, but not restricted to, the identification of buried objects. Gravity is an unbounded problem, which causes challenges when applying numerical models, i..e.., it results in computational difficulties when specifying the relevant boundary conditions. In order to address this, previous research has tended to generate artificial boundary conditions, e.g., truncating the simulated domain and adding many unrealistic zero-density layers, which introduces more unknown parameters and unnecessarily excessive computational time. In order to overcome such inaccuracies, this paper proposes an innovative development of the finite element modelling technique, which represents a step change in the field of gravity forward modelling. A comprehensive formulation of an infinite element to reproduce the far-field boundary effect using only one layer of infinite elements is presented. The developed model considerably reduces the computational time while obtaining high degrees of accuracy. The model is validated against the exact solution of the problem, and its results show an excellent performance. The proposed method can significantly improve the postprocessing and interpretation stages of data analysis relevant to micro-gravity sensors. The new method is applied to subsurface civil engineering although its applicability is manifold.     

Calculation of seismic bearing capacity of shallow strip foundations using the cell-based smoothed finite element method

This paper adopts an upper bound procedure using the cell-based smoothed finite element method (CS-FEM) to estimate the seismic bearing capacity of shallow strip footings, focussing on seismic soil-structure interactions. In simulations, soil behaviour is assumed as the Mohr–Coulomb material, and increment of plasticity deformation obeys the associated flow rule. The first step of the numerical procedure involves approximating the kinematically admissible displacement fields using the cell-based smoothed finite element method, while the second relates to the establishments of the optimization problem as the conic programming. The inclusion of seismic conditions in the simulations was made using the pseudo-static approach. Initially, three seismic bearing capacity factors were resolved for both smooth and rough foundations by including horizontal and vertical inertia forces caused by the soil weight, the superstructure and the surcharge in the analyses. All seismic bearing capacity components obtained are in excellent agreement with those obtained using the method of characteristics and other finite element analyses. Subsequently, the reduction coefficients that correlate static and seismic bearing capacity factors were computed to facilitate the seismic design of the foundation.

     

The legacy of the NE German Basin — reactivation by compressional buckling

In contrast to previously published models for the area, the seismic reflection Moho is essentially flat beneath the NE German Basin along the DEKORP deep seismic profile Basin'96. This raises the question, whether the present structure of the crust and flat Moho reflect the initial formation of the basin or modification by more recent processes. A 2D flexural model, developed for a thin elastic plate, is presented together with lithospheric strength profiles calculated along the BASIN 9601 reflection seismic line. The analysis shows a southward decrease of lithospheric strength below the Basin, with a lithospheric decoupling between the crust and the mantle. The modelling supports the hypothesis that the present Moho topography is caused by flexural buckling which caused subsidence of the NE German Basin during the Upper Cretaceous–Early Cenozoic inversion event. This suggests that the basin is in isostatic disequilibrium, and that compressive stresses are required to keep the present basin geometry.     

隧道地震预报波场的有限元数值模拟

在勘探地球物理领域中,能快速、有效地数值模拟2D和3D的地震全波场,包括同时模拟P波、S波、面波多分量波场特征的软件并不是很多;但在结构力学领域中,已有多种成熟的多波多分量有限元数值模拟大型商用软件用于求解弹性本构方程,如ANSYS,PLAXIS等。从方程结构来看,弹性本构方程与完全弹性波动方程相比,只多一项对时间的一阶微分项--阻尼项。因此,调整合理的介质参数--Rayleigh系数,令阻尼项近似为0,弹性本构方程就蜕化为完全弹性波动方程。隧道地震波场是在岩体中传播,具有弹性参数较好、无常规地震勘探中覆盖层等低速带干扰等的优点,采用ANSYS软件对隧道地震波场进行数值模拟,研究了频散、阻尼与吸收边界等数值模拟的相关技术。针对介质吸收,比较了数值模拟中有无阻尼的时间记录和波场快照,对隧道地震预报来说,将阻尼系数设定为0是一种合理的假设;比较了实例中不同网格长度与频散的关系,当网格长度小于波长的1/π倍时,才能消除频散;通过由波方程的推导,引入了黏弹性边界条件,通过实例计算证明它可以有效地吸收边界反射;最后对隧道地震预报进行了实例计算,算例表明采用ANSYS软件可以有效地模拟隧道复杂地质条件下全波场的激发传播过程。