Dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) and hydrologic mixing in a subtropical riverine estuary,southwest Florida,USA

Physical and chemical parameters were measured in a subtropical estuary with a blind river source in southwest Florida, United States, to assess seasonal discharge of overland flow and groundwater in hydrologic mixing. Water temperature, pH, salinity, alkalinity, dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC), δ¹⁸O, and δ¹³C_DIC varied significantly due to seasonal rainfall and climate. Axial distribution of the physical and chemical parameters constrained by tidal conditions during sampling showed that river water at low tide was a mixture of freshwater from overland flow and saline ground-water in the wet season and mostly saline groundwater in the dry season. Relationships between salinity and temperature, δ¹⁸O, and DIC for both the dry and wet seasons showed that DIC was most sensitive to seawater mixing in the estuary as DIC changed in concentration between values measured in river water at the tidal front to the most seaward station. A salinity-δ¹³C_DIC model was able to describe seawater mixing in the estuary for the wet season but not for the dry season because river water salinity was higher than that of seawater and the salinity gradient between seawater and river water was small. A DIC-δ¹³C_DIC mixing model was able to describe mixing of carbon from sheet flow and river water at low tide, and river water and seawater at high tide for both wet and dry seasons. The DIC-δ¹³C_DIC model was able to predict the seawater end member DIC for the wet season. The model was not able to predict the seawater end member DIC for the dry season data due to secondary physical and biogeochemical processes that altered estuarine DIC prior to mixing with seawater. The results of this study suggest that DIC and δ¹³C_DIC can provide additional insights into mixing of river water and seawater in estuaries during periods where small salinity gradients between river water and seawater and higher river water salinities preclude the use of salinity-carbon models.     

Estimation of net physical transport and hydraulic residence times for a coastal plain estuary using box models

A box model based on salinity distributions and freshwater inflow measurements was developed and used to estimate net non-tidal physical circulation and hydraulic residence times for Patuxent River estuary, Maryland, a tributary estuary of Chesapeake Bay. The box model relaxes the usual assumption that salinity is at steady-state, an important improvement over previous box model studies, yet it remains simple enough to have broad appeal. Average monthly 2-dimensional net non-tidal circulation and residence times for 1986–1995 are estimated and related to river flow and salt water inflow as estimated by the box model. An important result is that advective exchange at the estuary mouth was not correlated with Patuxent River flow, most likely due to effects of offshore salinity changes in Chesapeake Bay. The median residence time for freshwater entering at the head of the estuary was 68 d and decreased hyperbolically with increasing river flow to 30 d during high flow. Estimates of residence times for down-estuary points of origin showed that, from the head of the estuary to its mouth, control of flushing changed from primarily river flow to other factors regulating the intensity of gravitational circulation.     

Tidal sediment transport versus freshwater flood events in the Konkouré Estuary, Republic of Guinea

In comparison to their temperate counterparts, sediment processes in tropical estuaries are poorly known and especially in African ones. The hydrodynamics of such environments is controlled by a combination of multiple processes including morphology, salinity, mangrove vegetation, tidal processes, river discharge, settling and erosion of mud and by physico-chemical processes as well as sediment dynamics.The aim of this study is to understand the sediment processes in this transitional stage of the estuary when the balance between river discharges and marine processes is reversing. Studying the hydrodynamics and sediment dynamics of the Konkouré Estuary has recently been made possible thanks to new data on bathymetry, sedimentary cover, salinity, water elevations, and current velocities. The Lower Konkouré is a shallow, funnel shaped, mesotidal mangrove-fringed, tide-dominated estuary, well mixed during low river discharge and stratified during high river discharge. The Konkouré Estuary is turbid despite the small amount of terrestrial input and its residual velocity at the mouth during low river discharges, landwards for two of the three branches, suggests a landward migration by tidal pumping of the suspended particulate matter. A Turbidity Maximum Zone (TMZ) is identified for typical states of the estuary with regard to fluvial and tidal components. Suspended sediment transport during a transitional stage between the rainy and dry seasons is known thanks to current velocity and Suspended Sediment Concentration (SSC) measurements taken in November 2003. The Richardson layered number calculation assesses that turbulence is the major mixing process in the water column, at least during the flood and ebb stages, whereas stratification occurs during the slack water periods. Tidal currents generate bottom erosion, and turbulence mixes the suspended sediment throughout the water column. As a result, a net sediment input is calculated from the western Konkouré outlet for two consecutive tidal cycles. Despite the net water export, almost 300 tons per tide reach the estuary through this outlet, for a moderate river flow.     

Manganese and suspended matter in the Yaquina Estuary,Oregon

The longitudinal distribution of total suspended matter and total, dissolved, and particulate manganese in a small coastal plain estuary is described. The distribution of manganese is a consequence of estuarine circulation; a within-estuary maximum is inversely correlated with river flow, and is a function of residence time in the estuary, resuspension in the upper estuary, and desorption from particles introduced from within the estuary or from the river. The turbidity maximum is similarly most pronounced during low river flows. The upper estuary (salinity <15‰), comprising a small percentage of the total estuary volume during low flow, receives material from the river and along the bottom from the lower estuary; this material is returned to the water column by resuspension and desorption from estuarine and riverine particles. The lower estuary tends to damp out these processes because of the greater volume and (residence) time available for mixing.     

Climate Forcing and Salinity Variability in Chesapeake Bay,USA

Salinity is a critical factor in understanding and predicting physical and biogeochemical processes in the coastal ocean where it varies considerably in time and space. In this paper, we introduce a Chesapeake Bay community implementation of the Regional Ocean Modeling System (ChesROMS) and use it to investigate the interannual variability of salinity in Chesapeake Bay. The ChesROMS implementation was evaluated by quantitatively comparing the model solutions with the observed variations in the Bay for a 15-year period (1991 to 2005). Temperature fields were most consistently well predicted, with a correlation of 0.99 and a root mean square error (RMSE) of 1.5°C for the period, with modeled salinity following closely with a correlation of 0.94 and RMSE of 2.5. Variability of salinity anomalies from climatology based on modeled salinity was examined using empirical orthogonal function analysis, which indicates the salinity distribution in the Bay is principally driven by river forcing. Wind forcing and tidal mixing were also important factors in determining the salinity stratification in the water column, especially during low flow conditions. The fairly strong correlation between river discharge anomaly in this region and the Pacific Decadal Oscillation suggests that the long-term salinity variability in the Bay is affected by large-scale climate patterns. The detailed analyses of the role and importance of different forcing, including river runoff, atmospheric fluxes, and open ocean boundary conditions, are discussed in the context of the observed and modeled interannual variability.     

Impact of Channel Deepening on Tidal and Gravitational Circulation in a Highly Engineered Estuarine Basin

Deepening of estuarine channels is a common practice to ensure navigation. Here, we investigate whether such deepening impacts physical processes such as the strength of the estuarine exchange flow, the horizontal salinity gradient, and tidal dynamics. We analyze recent and historical hydrodynamic observations in Newark Bay, New Jersey, to assess the effect of channel deepening on tides, circulation, and salinity. The Bay’s navigational channel has undergone significant deepening, from 3 to 10 m in the nineteenth century to ~16 m today. Observations presented here include sea-level data from the nineteenth, twentieth, and twenty-first century, and moored Doppler current data and bottom salinity measurements made over the past 20 years. Results show a doubling of the estuarine exchange flow, a slight increase in salinity and in the horizontal salinity gradient, a decrease in tidal current amplitude, and a spatially variable change in the tidal range. The doubling of the exchange flow is consistent with the Hansen and Rattray scaling provided that the horizontal salinity gradient is unable to fully adjust landward because the dredging is limited to a short reach of the estuary. However, uncertainty in channel depth leaves open the possibility that the exchange flow is also augmented by an increase in the horizontal salinity gradient and/or a reduction in vertical mixing. Nevertheless, results demonstrate that a relatively small (15%) increase in depth appears to have doubled the exchange flow. We believe that this result is relevant to other systems where dredging is limited to a short reach of an estuary.     

Distribution of phosphorus along the Delaware,an urbanized coastal plain estuary

The Delaware Estuary is heavily urbanized with elevated concentrations of phosphorus from industrial and municipal inputs. For 24 research cruises during 1986–1988, total phosphorus (TP) concentration was highest near maximum inputs in the tidal river and at low salinity where turbidity was maximal. In these contiguous regions, average TP concentration over the study period was 5.3–6.1 μM. Downstream of the TP peak in the high turbidity zone of the estuary, TP decreased to minimum concentrations (1.3–1.5 μM) near the mouth of Delaware Bay. Distributions of dissolved reactive (DRP), dissolved organic (DOP), and particulate (PP) phosphorus along the estuary reflected spatial and temporal patterns in phosphorus inputs, turbidity, river flow, and biological production. In the river, DRP was 2–4 μM (51–65% of TP) and inversely related to river flow. PP, although enriched in the river (1–3 μM), was highest (>4 μM) in the turbidity maximum at low salinity. In the bay, distributions of DRP, PP, and DOP were all linked, in different ways, to biological production. The dependence of DOP on production was, however, complex and affected by DRP concentrations. During the past 30 yr, there has been a fourfold decrease in TP concentrations in the tidal river of the Delaware Estuary. This dramatic decrease in TP, however, is contrasted by an apparent increase in DRP concentration over the past 12 yr. This apparent increase in DRP may be linked to improved water quality (e.g., higher pH) in the river over the past decade.     

A model study of turbidity maxima in the York River estuary,Virginia

A three-dimensional numerical model is used to investigate the mechanisms that contribute to the formation of the turbidity maxima in the York River, Virginia (U.S.). The model reproduces the basic features in both salinity and total suspended sediments (TSS) fields for three different patterns. Both the prominent estuary turbidity maximum (ETM) and the newly discovered secondary turbidity maximum (STM) are simulated when river discharge is relatively low. At higher river inflow, the two turbidity maxima move closer to each other. During very high river discharge event, only the prominent turbidity maximum is simulated. Diagnostic model studies also suggest that bottom resuspension is an important source of TSS in both the ETM and the STM, and confirm the observed association between the turbidity maxima and the stratification patterns in the York River estuary. The ETM is usually located near the head of salt intrusion and the STM is often associated with a transition zone between upriver well mixed and downriver more stratified water columns. Analysis of the model results from the diagnostic studies indicates that the location of the ETM is well associated with the null point of bottom residual flow. Convergent bottom residual flow, as well as tidal asymmetry, is the most important mechanisms that contribute to the formation of the STM. the STM often exists in a region with landward decrease of bottom residual flow and net landward sediment flux due to tidal asymmetry. The channel depth of this region usually decreases sharply upriver. As channel depth decreases, vertical mixing increases and hence the water column is better mixed landward of the STM.     

Trace element cycling in a subterranean estuary: Part 2. Geochemistry of the pore water

Submarine groundwater discharge (SGD) is an important source of dissolved elements to the ocean, yet little is known regarding the chemical reactions that control their flux from sandy coastal aquifers. The net flux of elements from SGD to the coastal ocean is dependent on biogeochemical reactions in the groundwater-seawater mixing zone, recently termed the “subterranean estuary.” This paper is the second in a two part series on the biogeochemistry of the Waquoit Bay coastal aquifer/subterranean estuary. The first paper addressed the biogeochemistry of Fe, Mn, P, Ba, U, and Th from the perspective of the sediment composition of cores Charette et al. [Charette, M.A., Sholkovitz, E.R., Hansell, C.M., 2005. Trace element cycling in a subterranean estuary: Part 1. Geochemistry of the permeable sediments. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 69, 2095-2109]. This paper uses pore water data from the subterranean estuary, along with Bay surface water data, to establish a more detailed view into the estuarine chemistry and the chemical diagenesis of Fe, Mn, U, Ba and Sr in coastal aquifers. Nine high-resolution pore water (groundwater) profiles were collected from the head of the Bay during July 2002. There were non-conservative additions of both Ba and Sr in the salinity transition zone of the subterranean estuary. However, the extent of Sr release was significantly less than that of its alkaline earth neighbor Ba. Pore water Ba concentrations approached 3000 nM compared with 25-50 nM in the surface waters of the Bay; the pore water Sr-salinity distribution suggests a 26% elevation in the amount of Sr added to the subterranean estuary. The release of dissolved Ba to the mixing zone of surface estuaries is frequently attributed to an ion-exchange process whereby seawater cations react with Ba from river suspended clay mineral particles at low to intermediate salinity. Results presented here suggest that reductive dissolution of Mn oxides, in conjunction with changes in salinity, may also be an important process in maintaining high concentrations of Ba in the pore water of subterranean estuaries. In contrast, pore water U was significantly depleted in the subterranean estuary, a result of SGD-driven circulation of seawater through reducing permeable sediments. This finding is supported by surface water concentrations of U in the Bay, which were significantly depleted in U compared with adjacent coastal waters. Using a global estimate of SGD, we calculate U removal in subterranean estuaries at 20 × 10⁶ mol U y⁻¹, which is the same order of magnitude as the other major U sinks for the ocean. Our results suggest a need to revisit and reevaluate the oceanic budgets for elements that are likely influenced by SGD-associated processes.     

千岛湖配水工程对钱塘江河口盐水入侵影响

杭州市第二水源千岛湖配水工程（简称配水工程）的实施将引起富春江水库下泄流量及过程改变,从而对钱塘江河口盐水入侵产生影响。建立考虑涌潮作用的二维盐度数值模型,在验证钱塘江河口潮位和盐度的基础上,预测配水工程实施对河口盐水入侵距离和重要取水口含氯度超标时间的影响。研究表明:配水工程实施后,上游富春江水库若按现状调度方案,对枯水年影响大,咸水上溯距离增加3.7 km,沿岸取水口的可取水时间缩短0.2~3.6 d,丰、平水年盐水入侵和引水前相当;通过水库的优化调度,可基本消除枯水年引水造成的盐水入侵影响。为减少配水工程实施的盐水入侵影响,采用水库的优化调度模式是必要的。     

Temporal and spatial patterns of trace elements in the Patuxent River: A whole watershed approach

Trace element distributions, partitioning, and speciation were examined at 15 sites in the Patuxent River watershed from May 1995 through October 1997 to determine possible sources of trace elements to the river and estuary, to examine the relationship of the trace element discharges to freshwater discharges as well as to land use and geographic region, to validate previous estimates of loadings to the river, and to provide baseline data for trace elements in the Patuxent River watershed and estuary. Six freshwater sites were examined, representing different basins and geographic provinces, and nine sites along the estuarine salinity gradient. Subregions within the watershed varied considerably in concentrations and areal yields for some elements. Concentrations of As, Cd, Ni, Pb, and Zn were elevated in the Coastal Plain sites compared to the Piedmont sites, while Cu and Hg were more evenly distributed. Cadmium, Cu, Hg, Ni, Pb, and Zn showed overall positive correlations with river flow while As and methylHg (meHg) showed negative correlations with river flow. Concentrations of trace elements in the estuarine portion of the river were generally low, and consistent with mixing between Patuxent River water with elevated concentrations and the lower concentrations of the Chesapeake Bay. Interesting features included a local Cd maximum in the low salinity region of the estuary, probably caused by desorption from suspended sediments, and a significant input of water containing high As concentrations from the Chesapeake Bay and from As being released from bottom sediments in summer. Comparisons between the estimated annual flux of trace elements and the estimates of suspected source terms (atmospheric deposition, urban runoff, and known point sources) suggest that, except for Hg, direct atmospheric deposition is small compared to fluvial loads. Current estimates of trace element inputs from point sources or from urban runoff are inadequate for comparison with other sources, because of inappropriate techniques and/or unacceptably high detection limits. A complete examination of trace element dynamics in the Patuxent River (and in other coastal systems) will require better data for these potential sources.     

Toward a unified theory of tidally-averaged estuarine salinity structure

Equations are developed for the tidally-averaged, width-averaged estuarine salinity and circulation in a rectangular estuary. Width and depth may vary along the length of the channel, as may coefficients of vertical turbulent mixing and along channel diffusion. The system is reduced to a single first-order, nonlinear, ordinary differential equation governing the section-averaged salinity. A technique for specifying the ocean boundary condition is given, and solutions are found by numerical integration. Under different assumptions for the diffusion it is possible to reproduce the few existing analytical solutions, in particular the Hansen and Rattray (1965) Central Regime solution, and Chatwin's (1976) solution. The mathematical framework allows easy comparison of the results of different channel geometries and mixing coefficients. Of particular interest is the along-channel distribution of the diffusive fraction of up-estuary salt flux. It is shown that the Hansen and Rattray solution is always diffusion-dominated near the mouth. A theory is presented for estimating the diffusion coefficient within a tidal excursion of the mouth. It is shown that the resulting rapid along-channel increase of diffusion may explain some observed patterns of salinity structure: a decrease in both stratification and along-channel salinity gradient near the mouth. The theory is applied to the Delaware Estuary and Northern San Francisco Bay, and shows reasonable agreement with observed sensitivities of salt intrusion distance to river flow.     

Comparison of the Salinity Structure of the Chesapeake Bay,the Delaware Bay and Long Island Sound Using a Linearly Tapered Advection-Dispersion Model

Long records of monthly salinity observations along the axis of Chesapeake Bay, Delaware Bay, and Long Island Sound are used to test a simple advection–dispersion model of the salt distribution in linearly tapered estuaries developed in a previous paper. We subdivide each estuary into three to five segments, each with linear taper allowing a distributed input of fresh water, and evaluate the dispersion in each segment. While Delaware Bay has weak dispersion and a classical sigmoidal salinity structure, Long Island Sound and Chesapeake Bay are more dispersive and have relatively small gradients in the central stretches. Long Island Sound is distinguished by having a net volume and salt flux out of its low-salinity end resulting in a smaller range of salinity and increasing axial gradients at its head rather than the usual asymptotic approach to zero salinity. Estimates of residence times based on model transport coefficients show that Long Island Sound has the most rapid response to fresh-water flux variations. It also has the largest amplitude cycle in river discharge fluctuation. In combination, these cause the large seasonal variation in the salinity structure relative to interannual variability in Long Island Sound as compared with Chesapeake Bay and Delaware Bay.     

Pesticides associated with suspended sediemnts entering San Francisco Bay following the first major storm of water year 1996

Estuaries receive large quantities of suspended sediments following the first major storm of the water year. The first-flush events transport the majority of suspended sediments in any given year, and because of their relative freshness in the hydrologic system, these sediments may carry a significant amount of the sediment-associated pesticide load transported into estuaries. To characterize sediment-associated pesticides during a first-flush event, water and suspended sediment samples were collected at the head of the San Francisco Bay during the peak in suspended sediment concentration that followed the first major storm of the 1996 hydrologic year. Samples were analyzed for a variety of parameters as well as 19 pesticides and degradation products that span a wide range of hydrophobicity. Tidal mixing at the head of the estuary mixed relatively fresh suspended sediment transported down the rivers with suspended sediments in estuary waters. Segregation of the samples into groups with similar degrees of mixing between river and estuary water revealed that transport of suspended sediments from the Sacramento-San Joaquin drainage basin strongly influenced the concentration and distribution of sediment-associated pesticides entering the San Francisco Bay. The less-mixed suspended sediment contained a different distribution of pesticides than the sediments exposed to greater mixing. Temporal trends were evident in pesticide content after samples were segregated according to mixing history. These results indicate sampling strategies that collect at a low frequency or do not compare samples with similar mixing histories will not elucidate basin processes. Despite the considerable influence of mixing, a large number of pesticides were found associated with the suspended sediments. Few pesticides were found in the concurrent water samples and in concentrations much lower than predicted from equilibrium partitioning between the aqueous and sedimentary phases. The observed sediment-associated pesticide concentrations may reflect disequilibria between sedimentary and aqueous phases resulting from long equilibration times at locations where pesticides were applied, and relatively short transit times over which re-equilibration may occur.     

Seasonal Variability and Estuary–Shelf Interactions in Circulation Dynamics of a River-dominated Estuary

The long-term response of circulation processes to external forcing has been quantified for the Columbia River estuary using in situ data from an existing coastal observatory. Circulation patterns were determined from four Acoustic Doppler Profilers (ADP) and several conductivity–temperature sensors placed in the two main channels. Because of the very strong river discharge, baroclinic processes play a crucial role in the circulation dynamics, and the interaction of the tidal and subtidal baroclinic pressure gradients plays a major role in structuring the velocity field. The input of river flow and the resulting low-frequency flow dynamics in the two channels are quite distinct. Current and salinity data were analyzed on two time scales—subtidal (or residual) and tidal (both diurnal and semidiurnal components). The residual currents in both channels usually showed a classical two-layer baroclinic circulation system with inflow at the bottom and outflow near the surface. However, this two-layer system is transient and breaks down under strong discharge and tidal conditions because of enhanced vertical mixing. Influence of shelf winds on estuarine processes was also observed via the interactions with upwelling and downwelling processes and coastal plume transport. The transient nature of residual inflow affects the long-term transport characteristics of the estuary. Effects of vertical mixing could also be seen at the tidal time scale. Tidal velocities were separated into their diurnal and semidiurnal components using continuous wavelet transforms to account for the nonstationary nature of velocity amplitudes. The vertical structure of velocity amplitudes were considerably altered by baroclinic gradients. This was particularly true for the diurnal components, where tidal asymmetry led to stronger tidal velocities near the bottom.     

伶仃洋茅洲河口滩槽演变水沙模拟及治导线优化

为适应伶仃洋茅洲河口治理开发条件,以保证行洪顺畅为泄洪纳潮的首要原则,同时顺应水沙运动和河势发展规律,对河口进行治导线比选和优化。该河口治导线方案分单、双通道,两类通道不同扩宽率下设计有围填、围填加开挖2种方案,开展水动力泥沙数学模拟计算和物理模型试验。结果表明:河口治导线各方案对伶仃洋涨、落潮流速的影响范围主要集中在交椅湾及其附近海域;方案实施后,周边海区冲淤变化较小,未对河势造成不利影响;根据对水动力、河口泄洪、河势稳定影响的综合分析,单双通道相比较而言,对洪水位、纳潮量、高低潮位、流速、河床冲淤的影响规律具有较好的一致性,相同扩宽率下各方案的影响程度均在同量级。     

钱塘江河口一维盐度动床预报模型及应用

钱塘江河口为强涌潮、高含沙量、河床冲淤剧烈的河口,其盐度输移时空变化受河床冲淤的反馈影响十分显著。建立了考虑河床冲淤变化的一维盐度动床数学模型,耦合求解水沙运动、河床冲淤及盐度输移过程,数值计算方法采用守恒性较好的有限体积法。验证结果表明:河床冲淤对氯度的影响非常显著,动床模型的结果与实测基本吻合,在长历时盐度预报中采用动床模型是必要的。应用该模型分析了钱塘江河口咸水入侵对上游建库、治江缩窄工程等人类活动的响应,探讨了杭州城市供水水源保证率。结果表明,新安江水库、河口治理缩窄工程对改善河口淡水资源利用、保障杭州市供水安全显著;供水保证率要达95%以上,需采取上游水库泄水调度和新建备用水库等措施。     

Numerical Study of the Circulation and Sediment Transport in the Mahanadi Estuary

The Mahanadi River is one of the largest river systems in the east coast of Indiaand the estuary drains and communicates with the Bay of Bengal. The seasonallyvarying fresh water river discharge and the intrusion of salt water from the baydepend on the flow associated with the semi-diurnal component of the astronomicaltide (dominated by M₂ component). A numerical model has been developed tosimulate and study the salinity structure, velocity profile, flow and circulation patternand have been compared with the observed data. A reasonably good agreement isnoticed between the model simulations and the observations. The model result hasbeen utilised to compute sediment load transport to the estuary channel over a tidalcycle as well as on a monthly time scale. The sediment load transport owing to monthlyclimatological rainfall is discussed and it is inferred that a dynamic equilibrium existson a long-term over good/bad monsoons.     

A modeling study of the Satilla River estuary,Georgia. II: suspended sediment

A three-dimensional (3-D) suspended sediment model was coupled with a 3-D hydrodynamic numerical model and used to examine the spatial and temporal distribution of suspended sediments in the Satilla River estuary of Georgia. The hydrodynamic model was a modified ECOM-si model with inclusion of the flooding-drying cycle over intertidal salt marshes. The suspended sediment model consisted of a simple passive tracer equation with inclusion of sinking, resuspension, and sedimentation processes. The coupled model was driven by tidal forcing at the open boundary over the inner shelf of the South Atlantic Bight and real-time river discharge at the upstream end of the estuary, with a uniform initial distribution of total suspended sediment (TSS). The initial conditions for salinity were specified using observations taken along the estuary. The coupled model provided a reasonable simulation of both the spatial and temporal distributions of observed TSS concentration. Model-predicted TSS concentrations varied over a tidal cycle; they were highest at maximum flood and ebb tidal phases and lowest at slack tides. Model-guided process studies suggest that the spatial distribution of TSS concentration in the Satilla River estuary is controlled by a complex nonlinear physical process associated with the convergence and divergence of residual flow, a non-uniform along-estuary distribution of bottom stress, and the inertial effects of a curved shoreline.     

Modeling the Effects of Tidal Energy Extraction on Estuarine Hydrodynamics in a Stratified Estuary

A 3-D coastal ocean model with a tidal turbine module was used in this paper to study the effects of tidal energy extraction on temperature and salinity stratification and density-driven two-layer estuarine circulation. Numerical experiments with various turbine array configurations were carried out to investigate the changes in tidally averaged temperature, salinity, and velocity profiles in an idealized stratified estuary that connects to coastal water through a narrow tidal channel. The model was driven by tides, river inflow, and sea surface heat flux. To represent the realistic size of commercial tidal farms, model simulations were conducted based on a small percentage (less than 10 %) of the total number of turbines that would generate the maximum extractable energy in the system. Model results show that extraction of tidal in-stream energy will increase the vertical mixing and decrease the stratification in the estuary. Installation of in-stream tidal farm will cause a phase lag in tidal wave, which leads to large differences in tidal currents between baseline and tidal farm conditions. Extraction of tidal energy in an estuarine system has stronger impact on the tidally averaged salinity, temperature, and velocity in the surface layer than the bottom layer even though the turbine hub height is close to the bottom. Finally, model results also indicate that extraction of tidal energy weakens the two-layer estuarine circulation, especially during neap tides when tidal mixing is weakest and energy extraction is smallest.