Os, Nd, and Sr isotopic and chemical compositions of ultramafic xenoliths from Kurose, SW Japan: Implications for contribution of slab-derived material to wedge mantle

We examined seven ultramafic xenoliths from 1~3 Ma alkali olivine basalt reefs near the Eurasian continent and one sample of the host alkali basalt to identify the mantle wedge material and to constrain the origin and evolution of mantle beneath SW Japan. Six xenoliths are from Kurose and one xenolith is from Takashima, northern part of the Kyushu islands, SW Japan. The Sr and Nd isotopic ratios vary from 0.70416 to 0.70773 and from 0.51228 to 0.51283, respectively. The Kurose and Takashima xenoliths have higher Sr isotopic ratios and lower Nd isotopic ratios than those of the peridotite xenoliths from the other arc settings such as Simcoe and NE Japan.

The Kurose xenoliths have less radiogenic Os isotopic ratios (¹⁸⁷Os/¹⁸⁸Os = 0.123–0.129) than the primitive upper mantle (PUM) estimate and limited variation compared to the other arc xenoliths. Their Os isotope compositions are rather similar to the ultramafic xenoliths from NE and east China. In addition, the samples of the Kurose and Takashima xenoliths plot along a mixing line between ultramafic xenoliths from SE and NE China and a slab component in Sr–Nd–Os isotopic space. Our results suggest that fragments of continental lithospheric mantle from the China craton may exist beneath Kurose and Takashima after the Sea of Japan expansion when the Japanese islands were rifted away from the Eurasian continent during Miocene. Later magmatism due to subduction of the Philippine Sea Plate beneath the SW Japan arc around 15 Ma ago may have introduced fluids or melts derived from slab component, interpreted to be oceanic sediments rather than altered oceanic crust, that possibly modified the original composition of the lithospheric mantle sampled by the peridotite xenoliths from Kurose and Takashima.     

安徽女山地幔橄榄岩捕虏体的同位素组成:中国东部新生代岩石圈地幔时代制约

位于安徽省境内的女山新生代碱性玄武岩中含有大量而且类型丰富的地幔橄榄岩包体,主要类型有尖晶石相、石榴石相、尖晶石-石榴子石过渡相二辉橄榄岩以及少量的方辉橄榄岩,其中部分尖晶石二辉橄榄岩样品中出现富含挥发分的角闪石、金云母和磷灰石。本文选择该区的尖晶石二辉橄榄岩和方辉橄榄岩包体进行了较为详细的岩石学、矿物学、地球化学研究工作。结果显示,除2个方辉橄榄岩表现难熔特征外,其它25件尖晶石相二辉橄榄岩均具有饱满的主量元素组成。二辉橄榄岩样品的Sr-Nd-Hf同位素均表现为亏损地幔的性质,不同于古老克拉通型难熔、富集的岩石圈地幔。富含挥发份交代矿物的出现以及轻稀土元素不同程度的富集,表明女山岩石圈地幔经历了较为强烈的交代作用,然而Re-Os同位素及PGE分析结果表明交代作用并没有显著改变Os同位素组成。二辉橄榄岩样品均具有较高的Os同位素组成,结合其饱满的主量元素组成,亏损的同位素特征,表明女山地区岩石圈地幔整体为新生岩石圈地幔。但1个方辉橄榄岩样品给出了较低的Os同位素比值0.1184,其Re亏损年龄为1.5Ga,它可能来自于软流圈中残留的古老难熔地幔。     

吉林蛟河地幔橄榄岩捕虏体的Sr-Nd-Hf-Os同位素特征与岩石圈地幔时代

吉林省蛟河市境内大石河新生代玄武岩中含有丰富的地幔橄榄岩包体,详细的岩石学与矿物学研究显示,这些包体的主要岩石类型为尖晶石二辉橄榄岩-方辉橄榄岩,未发现石榴石橄榄岩.岩相学及地球化学资料显示它们都是经历过熔体抽取而形成的岩石圈地幔残留.矿物平衡温度计算发现,本区的这些地幔橄榄岩包体来自地下40～60km深度,且下部以二辉橄榄岩为主,而上部以贫单斜辉石的二辉橄榄岩和方辉橄榄岩为主,显示明显的岩石圈地幔分层现象.Sr-Nd-Hf同位素资料反映这些地幔包体均表现为亏损性质,而Re-Os同位素资料确定上述岩石圈地幔形成于中元古代,明显老于上覆地壳的新元古宙时代,反映壳幔年龄上的解耦.因此我们推测,该区曾经历过华北克拉通类似的早期岩石圈地幔的整体丢失事件,然后形成于其它地区的中元古宙岩石圈地幔在本区增生.     

吉林省伊通地区橄榄岩包体的同位素特征与岩石圈地幔时代

吉林省伊通新生代火山群中大孤山所伴生的东小山火山含有丰富的地幔橄榄岩包体,详细的岩石学和矿物学工作显示,这些包体的主要岩石类型为尖晶石二辉橄榄岩,含有少量的方辉橄榄岩和异剥橄榄岩。包体的结构类型多样,包括粒状变晶结构、碎斑状结构、糜棱结构和筛状变晶结构。主量元素及矿物化学资料表明,这些地幔橄榄岩包体大都比较饱满,说明其所经历的部分熔融程度较低。微量元素显示,包体在形成以后经受过不同程度地幔交代作用的影响。矿物平衡温度计算结果表明包体的平衡温度为989～1142℃,来源深度约为40～70km。Sr-Nd-Hf同位素资料反映二辉橄榄岩包体具有亏损地幔的特征。Re-Os同位素资料显示上述岩石圈地幔的主体形成于显生宙期间,少量具有中元古代Re亏损年龄的样品所代表的古老地幔与本区上覆地壳成因无关,可能是软流圈中固有的较古老的大陆岩石圈地幔。     

大陆下地壳拆沉模式初探

下地壳拆沉是人们关注的问题,文中指出下地壳拆沉必须满足至少三个条件：（1）地壳加厚使其下部达到熘辉岩相是拆沉的前提.（2）大规模岩浆活动使大量低密度的中酸性物质移出下地壳,使下地壳密度增加直至超过下伏地幔.由于下地壳榴辉岩石部分熔融所形成的岩浆具有埃达克岩的地球化学特征,因此,大规模魂达克岩的熔出是下地壳拆沉的先决和必要条件.（3）岩石圈地幔转化为软流圈地幔,使下地壳能够进入地幔.陆壳下的岩石圈地幔原先是冷的、刚性的和不易流动的,如果有热和水的加入,可以被软化,使其变成热的、塑性的和易流动的软流圈地幔。因此,岩石圈了幔转化为软流圈地幔是下地壳拆沉的必要条件。作者认为,下地壳不大可能整体拆沉,而很可能是一块一块如飘雪花似地拆沉。如果下地壳的密度降低（低于下伏地幔）,如果地幔停止热的供给,如果陆壳底部的软流圈地幔幔又恢复为岩石圈地幔,拆沉即终止。文中讨论了中国东部中生代下地壳拆沉的可能性,探讨了岩石圈减薄的机制,认为下地壳不需要也不可能与岩石圈地幔一道拆况。     

大陆岩石圈地幔异剥橄榄岩化的证据和意义

异剥橄榄岩化是地幔橄榄岩与硅不饱和熔体发生强烈相互作用的地幔过程。这一过程通常伴随地幔物理-化学性质的显著改变,与克拉通岩石圈减薄和破坏密切相关。本文梳理了前人对异剥橄榄岩化的驱动机理、结构和成分特征及其对大陆稳定性影响等方面的定性认识,并在此基础上通过热力学模拟,刻画了不同属性地幔与熔体在不同温度压力条件下的相互作用过程,目标是为定量限定异剥橄榄岩化的发生条件、物理-化学效应及地球动力学意义。研究显示,异剥橄榄岩化通常会出现磷灰石、角闪石、金云母和碳酸盐等标志性交代矿物,并以斜方辉石被单斜辉石替换为典型特征,还可发育海绵边、熔体囊（已冷却结晶为单斜辉石、橄榄石等细粒矿物）和矿物环带等非平衡结构。热力学模拟表明,熔岩反应过程受原岩、熔体性质以及熔/岩比例的共同控制,不同属性地幔（难熔方辉橄榄岩、饱满二辉橄榄岩）与贫硅（如霞石岩）熔体反应都能生成富单斜辉石橄榄岩,且在较高压力（如2.5GPa和4.0GPa）条件下更容易形成异剥橄榄岩;相比之下,不同性质地幔与富硅（如MORB）熔体反应在任何压力条件下均不能产生异剥橄榄岩。此外,两类熔体参与的熔岩反应均能引起围岩密度逐渐增加,并在高压条件下能导致饱满岩石圈地幔密度超过地幔参考值、达到岩石圈失稳的条件。因此,本文从热力学的角度定量约束了异剥橄榄岩化的发生条件和对岩石圈地幔的影响,为前人提出的橄榄岩-熔体反应能够造成岩石圈地幔减薄和破坏这一概念模型提供了理论实证,对评估大陆稳定性具有重要意义。

     

苏皖地区幔源橄榄岩捕瞄虏体的锇同位素组成、模式年龄及其意义

苏皖地区发育的新生代玄武岩中富含地幔橄榄岩捕虏体，测定了25个橄榄岩全岩的锇同位素组成。结果表明大部分样品呈亏损特征,187Os/188Os=0.119～0.129.Os同位素比值与主量成分之间有显著的相关性.采用187Os/188Os-Al2O3代用等时线方法,由截距得到初始值(187Os/188Os)0=0.109,在对流地幔的187Os/188Os比值演化线上获得模式年龄t=2.5(±0.1)Ga,为晚太古-早元古代。用样品组中最低的锇同位素组成,即187Os/188Os=0.119,计算Re亏损模式年龄,t=1.2Ga,为中元古代。表明苏皖地区新生代玄武岩中的地幔橄榄岩捕虏体具有古老的形成年龄,它们是经过显生宙减薄作用后的残余地幔的碎片。大陆岩石圈地幔的古老形成年龄与上覆地壳克拉通的古老稳定年龄相耦合。     

大陆深俯冲后效作用的地球化学记录——华北中生代岩石圈地幔源区特征变异的讨论

早中生代扬子板块与华北板块之间的俯冲及其后两陆块间的碰撞为大陆深俯冲后效作用研究提供了一个少见的实例。本文在系统论述华北中生代深部年代学记录、深源岩类源区地球化学特征的时空变化规律,普遍的 Sr 同位素高度富集现象及其空间变化指向、高场强元素强烈分馏以及时间制约分析基础上,提出了导致这些源区特征变化最可能的机制为扬子板片深俯冲中析出的熔体/流体交代并改造了华北大陆岩石圈地幔。而其后中生代全球事件引发的中国东部广泛而强烈白垩纪构造-岩浆幕则提供了侵位于地壳层位深源岩类的成岩条件。本文强调指出对华北岩石圈地幔这种大尺度实体上的改造,应被视为扬子板片深俯冲后效作用中最具深远意义的一种表现,并对中生代华北岩石圈整体转型产生了重要影响。     

Post-collisional granitoids from the Dabie orogen in China: Zircon U–Pb age, element and O isotope evidence for recycling of subducted continental crust

While recycling of subducted oceanic crust is widely proposed to be associated with oceanic island, island arc, and subduction-related adakite magmatism, it is less clear whether recycling of subducted continental crust takes place in continental collision belts. A combined study of zircon U–Pb dating, major and minor element geochemistry, and O isotopes in Early Cretaceous post-collisional granitoids from the Dabie orogen in China demonstrates that they may have been generated by partial melting of subducted continental crust. The post-collisional granitoids from the Dabie orogen comprise hornblende-bearing intermediate rocks and hornblende-free granitic rocks. These granitoids are characterized by fractionated REE patterns with low HREE contents and negative HFSE anomalies (Nb, Ta and Ti). Although zircon U–Pb dating gives consistent ages of 120 to 130 Ma for magma crystallization, occurrence of inherited cores is identified by CL imaging and SHRIMP U–Pb dating; some zircon grains yield ages of 739 to 749 Ma and 214 to 249 Ma, in agreement with Neoproterozoic protolith ages of UHP metaigneous rocks and a Triassic tectono-metamorphic event in the Dabie–Sulu orogenic belt, respectively. The granitoids have relatively homogeneous zircon δ¹⁸O values from 4.14‰ to 6.11‰ with an average of 5.10‰ ± 0.42‰ (n = 28) similar to normal mantle zircon. Systematically low zircon δ¹⁸O values for most of the coeval mafic–ultramafic rocks and intruded country rocks preclude an AFC process of mafic magma or mixing between mafic and felsic magma as potential mechanisms for the petrogenesis of the granitoids. Along with zircon U–Pb ages and element results, it is inferred that the granitic rocks were probably derived from partial melting of intermediate lower crust and the intermediate rocks were generated by amphibole-dehydration melting of mafic rocks in the thickened lower crust, coupled with fractional crystallization during magma emplacement. The post-collisional granitoids in the Dabie orogen are interpreted to originate from recycling of the subducted Yangtze continental crust that was thickened by the Triassic continent–continent collision. Partial melting of orogenic lithospheric keel is suggested to have generated the bimodal igneous rocks with the similar crustal heritage. Crustal thinning by post-collisional detachment postdated the onset of bimodal magmatism that was initiated by a thermal pulse related to mantle superwelling in Early Cretaceous.     

The evolution of continental roots in numerical thermo-chemical mantle convection models including differentiation by partial melting

Incorporating upper mantle differentiation through decompression melting in a numerical mantle convection model, we demonstrate that a compositionally distinct root consisting of depleted peridotite can grow and remain stable during a long period of secular cooling. Our modeling results show that in a hot convecting mantle partial melting will produce a compositional layering in a relatively short time of about 50 Ma. Due to secular cooling mantle differentiation finally stops before 1 Ga. The resulting continental root remains stable on a billion year time scale due to the combined effects of its intrinsically lower density and temperature-dependent rheology. Two different parameterizations of the melting phase-diagram are used in the models. The results indicate that during the Archaean melting occurred on a significant scale in the deep regions of the upper mantle, at pressures in excess of 15 GPa. The compositional depths of continental roots extend to 400 km depending on the potential temperature and the type of phase-diagram parameterization used in the model. The results reveal a strong correlation between lateral variations of temperature and the thickness of the continental root. This shows that cold regions in cratons are stabilized by a thick depleted root.     

古老大陆岩石圈地幔再循环与蛇绿岩中铬铁矿床成因

不同地区、不同时代蛇绿岩中不同类型铬铁矿岩的Re-Os同位素研究表明,在铬铁矿石或围岩中均存在极度亏损的具有大陆岩石圈地幔属性的物质。新疆达拉布特古生代蛇绿岩带中萨尔托海富Al铬铁矿岩的Os同位素组成为0.1109～0.1256,对应的模式年龄为3.5～0.6Ga;西藏班公湖—怒江中生代蛇绿岩带中东巧富Cr铬铁矿石及围岩Os同位素组成介于0.1175～0.1261,对应的模式年龄为1.5～0.1Ga;雅鲁藏布江中生代蛇绿岩带中罗布莎富Cr铬铁矿岩的Os同位素变化范围为0.1038～0.1266,对应的模式年龄为3.37～0.28Ga,而该带中不含矿的泽当二辉橄榄岩的Os同位素组成为0.1256～0.1261,没有古老大陆岩石圈地幔属性的物质存在,与新特提斯洋地幔Os组成较为接近。推测在蛇绿岩形成过程中,古老大陆岩石圈地幔参与循环有利于形成铬铁矿床,明确提出"熔体与古老大陆岩石圈地幔反应成矿"的假说,指出蛇绿岩带中存在的古老微陆块可能是找矿的指示标志。     

岩石圈地幔中的金刚石及其矿物包裹体的研究进展

金刚石及封存于其中的矿物包裹体对于研究金刚石的成因以及古老岩石圈地幔、超深地幔的性质和地幔过程具有重要的研究意义,是国内外地质学家们的研究热点。大多数金刚石来源于岩石圈地幔,根据包裹体相对于寄主金刚石形成的时间可分为先成包裹体、同生包裹体和后生包裹体,包裹体属于哪种类型直接关系到数据所代表的意义,根据包裹体源区的岩石类型,通常将包裹体分为P/U型和E型,介绍了2种类型包裹体包含的矿物种类,并对出现较多的橄榄石、单斜辉石、斜方辉石、石榴石、铬铁矿和硫化物包裹体的矿物学特征进行了详细描述,归纳了金刚石及其矿物包裹体的主要研究方向:包裹体矿物的化学成分、金刚石的碳同位素组成、金刚石形成的温度、压力及年龄,综述了克拉通岩石圈地幔金刚石及其矿物包裹体的成因,总结了我国金刚石中包裹体的研究成果,分析了国内研究工作与国际上的差距。     

松树沟超镁铁岩主量元素及Os同位素初步研究

本文利用 N-TIMS 方法测定了松树沟超镁铁岩的Os同位素组成，初步获得的Os同位素组成数据显示：残余型超镁铁岩的Os同位素比值明显低于岩浆型，表明松树沟岩体在岩浆演化过程中发生了 Re/Os分异；187Os/188Os与Al2O3、Al2O3/MgO正相关，与MgO负相关，表明在岩浆演化过程中，微量的 Re、Os元素分别与主要元素 Al2O3和MgO的性质相似。     

Melt/mantle mixing produces podiform chromite deposits in ophiolites: Implications of Re-Os systematics in the Dongqiao Neo-tethyan ophiolite, northern Tibet

Podiform chromite deposits occur in the mantle sequences of many ophiolites that were formed in supra-subduction zone (SSZ) settings. We have measured the Re-Os isotopic compositions of the major chromite deposits and associated mantle peridotites of the Dongqiao Ophiolite in the Bangong-Nujiang suture, Tibet, to investigate the petrogenesis of these rocks and their genetic relationships.The ¹⁸⁷Os/¹⁸⁸Os ratios of the chromite separates define a narrow range from 0.12318 to 0.12354, less variable than those of the associated peridotites. Previously-reported ¹⁸⁷Os/¹⁸⁸Os ratios of the Os-rich alloys enclosed in the chromitites define two clusters: 0.12645 ± 0.00004 (2 s; n = 145) and 0.12003 to 0.12194. The ultra-depleted dunites have much lower ¹⁸⁷Os/¹⁸⁸Os (0.11754, 0.11815), and the harzburgites show a wider range from 0.12107 to 0.12612. The average isotopic composition of the chromitites (¹⁸⁷Os/¹⁸⁸Os: 0.12337 ± 0.00001) is low compared with the carbonaceous chondrite value (¹⁸⁷Os/¹⁸⁸Os: 0.1260 ± 0.0013) and lower than the average value measured for podiform chromitites worldwide (0.12809 ± 0.00085). In contrast, the basalts have higher ¹⁸⁷Os/¹⁸⁸Os, ranging from 0.20414 to 0.38067, while the plagioclase-bearing harzburgite and cumulates show intermediate values of ¹⁸⁷Os/¹⁸⁸Os (0.12979 ~ 0.14206). Correspondingly, the basalts have the highest ¹⁸⁷Re/¹⁸⁸Os ratios, up to 45.4 ± 3.2, and the chromites have the lowest ¹⁸⁷Re/¹⁸⁸Os ratios, down to 0.00113 ± 0.00008. We suggest that melts/fluids, derived from the subducting slab, triggered partial melting in the overlying mantle wedge and added significant amounts of radiogenic Os to the peridotites. Mass-balance calculations indicate that a melt/mantle ratio of approximately 15:1 (melt: ¹⁸⁷Re/¹⁸⁸Os: 45.4, ¹⁸⁷Os/¹⁸⁸Os: 0.34484; mantle peridotite: ¹⁸⁷Re/¹⁸⁸Os: 0.0029, ¹⁸⁷Os/¹⁸⁸Os: 0.11754) is necessary to increase the Os isotopic composition of the chromitite deposits to its observed average value. This value implies a surprisingly low average melt/mantle ratio during the formation of the chromitite deposits. The percolating melts probably were of variable isotopic composition. However, in the chromitite pods the Os from many melts was pooled and homogenized, which is why the chromitite deposits show such a small variation in their Os isotopic composition. The results of this study suggest that the ¹⁸⁷Os/¹⁸⁸Os ratios of chromitites may not be representative of the DMM, but only reflect an upper limit. Importantly, the Os-isotope compositions of chromitites strongly suggest that such deposits can be formed by melt/mantle mixing processes.     

Review on Lithospheric Diamonds and Their Mineral Inclusions

Diamonds and their mineral inclusions are valuable for studying the genesis of diamonds, the characteristics and processes of ancient lithospheric mantle and deeper mantle. This has been paid lots of attentions by geologists both at home and abroad. Most diamonds come from lithospheric mantle. According to their formation preceded, accompanied or followed crystallization of their host diamonds, mineral inclusions in diamonds are divided into three groups: protogenetic, syngenetic and epigenetic. To determine which group the mineral inclusions belong to is very important because it is vital for understanding the data’s meaning. According to the type of mantle source rocks, mineral inclusions in diamonds are usually divided into peridotitic (or ultramafic) suite and eclogitic suite. The mineral species of each suite are described and mineralogical characteristics of most common inclusions in diamonds, such as olivine, clinopyroxene, orthopyroxene, garnet, chromite and sulfide are reviewed in detail. In this paper, the main research fields and findings of diamonds and their inclusions were described: ①getting knowledge of mineralogical and petrologic characteristics of diamond source areas, characteristics of mantle fluids and mantle dynamics processes by studying the major element and trace element compositions of mineral inclusions; ②discussing deep carbon cycle by studying carbon isotopic composition of diamonds; ③determining forming temperature and pressure of diamonds by using appropriate assemblages of mineral inclusions or single mineral inclusion as geothermobarometry, by using the abundance and aggregation of nitrogen impurities in diamonds and by measuring the residual stress that an inclusion remains under within a diamond ; ④estimating the crystallization ages of diamonds by using the aggregation of nitrogen impurities in diamonds and by determine the radiometric ages of syngenetic mineral inclusions in diamonds. Genetic model of craton lithospheric diamonds and their mineral inclusion were also introduced. In the end, the research progress on diamonds and their inclusions in China and the gap between domestic and international research are discussed.     

Paleolithospheric structure revealed by continental geoid anomalies

Lithospheric geoid anomalies record changes in elevation and potential energy experienced by continental lithosphere. Estimates of local isostatic equilibration and potential energy, in tandem with lithosphere-related geoid anomalies, can be used to estimate paleolithospheric thickness, providing a clearer understanding of how and why continental topography is developed. We employ several simplifying assumptions about the crustal and mantle lithosphere density and structure (and readily acknowledge that our results are therefore first-order approximations) to predict the pre-orogenic structure of the lithosphere. At the outset we emphasize that while this approach does not provide an exhaustive evaluation of the deformation mechanism, it does serve to quantify the relative role played by the variations in the crustal and upper mantle components of the lithosphere. In this way we are able to use independent measurement of lithospheric geoid anomalies, current (post-orogenic) elevation and lithospheric structure, and paleoelevation information to estimate topographic development and structural support over time. Application of this technique to the southwestern United States indicates that the uplift of the Colorado Plateau is the result of processes in both the crust and mantle lithosphere and that the lithosphere of the pre-orogenic Southern Basin and Range was thinned relative to the Northern Basin and Range and Colorado Plateau. Although we use the southwestern U.S. as an example, this method can help constrain uplift mechanisms for any region for which the structure and geoid anomaly of the modern lithosphere is well understood.     

The Homestead kimberlite, central Montana, USA: mineralogy, xenocrysts, and upper-mantle xenoliths

The Homestead kimberlite was emplaced in lower Cretaceous marine shale and siltstone in the Grassrange area of central Montana. The Grassrange area includes aillikite, alnoite, carbonatite, kimberlite, and monchiquite and is situated within the Archean Wyoming craton. The kimberlite contains 25–30 modal% olivine as xenocrysts and phenocrysts in a matrix of phlogopite, monticellite, diopside, serpentine, chlorite, hydrous Ca–Al–Na silicates, perovskite, and spinel. The rock is kimberlite based on mineralogy, the presence of atoll-textured groundmass spinels, and kimberlitic core-rim zoning of groundmass spinels and groundmass phlogopites.

Garnet xenocrysts are mainly Cr-pyropes, of which 2–12% are G10 compositions, crustal almandines are rare and eclogitic garnets are absent. Spinel xenocrysts have MgO and Cr₂O₃ contents ranging into the diamond inclusion field. Mg-ilmenite xenocrysts contain 7–11 wt.% MgO and 0.8–1.9 wt.% Cr₂O₃, with (Fe⁺³/Fe^tot) from 0.17–0.31. Olivine is the only obvious megacryst mineral present. One microdiamond was recovered from caustic fusion of a 45-kg sample.

Upper-mantle xenoliths up to 70 cm size are abundant and are some of the largest known garnet peridotite xenoliths in North America. The xenolith suite is dominated by dunites, and harzburgites containing garnet and/or spinel. Granulites are rare and eclogites are absent. Among 153 xenoliths, 7% are lherzolites, 61% are harzburgites, 31% are dunites, and 1% are orthopyroxenites. Three of 30 peridotite xenoliths that were analysed are low-Ca garnet–spinel harzburgites containing G10 garnets. Xenolith textures are mainly coarse granular, and only 5% are porphyroclastic.

Xenolith modal mineralogy and mineral compositions indicate ancient major-element depletion as observed in other Wyoming craton xenolith assemblages, followed by younger enrichment events evidenced by tectonized or undeformed veins of orthopyroxenite, clinopyroxenite, websterite, and the presence of phlogopite-bearing veins and disseminated phlogopite. Phlogopite-bearing veins may represent kimberlite-related addition and/or earlier K-metasomatism.

Xenolith thermobarometry using published two-pyroxene and Al-in-opx methods suggest that garnet–spinel peridotites are derived from 1180 to 1390 °C and 3.6 to 4.7 GPa, close to the diamond–graphite boundary and above a 38 mW/m² shield geotherm. Low-Ca garnet–spinel harzburgites with G10 garnets fall in about the same T and P range. Most spinel peridotites with assumed 2.0 GPa pressure are in the same T range, possibly indicating heating of the shallow mantle. Four of 79 Cr diopside xenocrysts have P–T estimates in the diamond stability field using published single-pyroxene P–T calculation methods.     

The thermal structure and thickness of continental roots

We compare heat flow data from the Precambrian shields in North America and in South Africa. We also review data available in other less well-sampled Shield regions. Variations in crustal heat production account for most of the variability of the heat flow. Because of this variability, it is difficult to define a single average crustal model representative of a whole tectonic province. The average heat flow values of different Archean provinces in Canada, South Africa, Australia and India differ by significant amounts. This is also true for Proterozoic provinces. For example, the heat flow is significantly higher in the Proterozoic Namaqua–Natal Belt of South Africa than in the Grenville Province of the Canadian Shield (61 vs. 41 mW m⁻² on average). These observations indicate that it is not possible to define single value of the average heat flow for all provinces of the same crustal age. Large amplitude short wavelength variations of the heat flow suggest that most of the difference between Proterozoic and Archean heat flow is of crustal origin. In eastern Canada, there is no good correlation between the local values of heat flow and heat production. In the Archean, Proterozoic and Paleozoic provinces of eastern Canada, heat flow values through rocks with the same heat production are not significantly different. There is therefore no evidence for variations of the mantle heat flow beneath these different provinces. After removing the local crustal heat production from the surface heat flow, the mantle (Moho) heat flow was estimated to be between 10–15 mW m⁻² in the Archean, Proterozoic and Paleozoic provinces of eastern Canada. Estimates of the mantle heat flow in the Kaapvaal craton of South Africa may be slightly higher (≈17 mW m⁻²). Large-scale variations of bulk crustal heat production are well-documented in Canada and imply significant differences of deep lithospheric thermal structure. In thick lithosphere, surficial heat flow measurements record a time average of heat production in the lithospheric mantle and are not in equilibrium with the instantaneous heat production. The low mantle heat flow and current estimates of heat production in the lithospheric mantle do not support a mechanical (conductive) lithosphere thinner than 200 km and thicker than 330 km. Temperature anomalies with surrounding oceanic mantle extend to the convective boundary layer below the conductive layer, and hence to depths greater than these estimates. Mechanical and thermal stability of the lithosphere require the mantle part of the lithosphere to be chemically buoyant and depleted in radiogenic elements. Both characteristics are achieved simultaneously by partial melting and melt extraction.     

Cenozoic lithospheric extension induced magmatism in Southwest Japan

Island chains off western Kyushu are the surface exposure in the northern margin of the Taiwan–Sinzi Folded Zone that spreads along the arc–trench system in the back-arc side from SW Japan to Taiwan. Intermittent igneous activity between the Middle Miocene and Holocene occurred on these islands and widely covered or intruded sedimentary rocks of Early–Middle Miocene. Geochemistry of the volcanic rocks from the Hirado, Ikitsuki and Takushima islands believed to relate to the back-arc opening along the East China and Japan Seas shows a temporal change in source material. Submarine to sub-aerial volcanism occurred on Hirado Island at 15 Ma during the final opening stage of the East China Sea producing tholeiitic basalt and associated andesite–dacite. These eruptives show low incompatible element contents and high FeO*/MgO ratios and reflect a tholeiitic differentiation trend. High Sr and Pb and low Nd isotopic ratios suggest the involvement of EM2-like lithospheric mantle and crustal material in the formation of these syn-opening volcanic rocks. Post-opening alkali basalt volcanism occurred at 9–6 Ma on the islands is characterized by OIB-like higher large ionic lithophile elements (LILE) and high field strength elements (HFSE) compared to 15 Ma basalts in this region and Quaternary basalts along the volcanic front. They have variable range of incompatible element concentrations and ratios along with variable Sr, Pb and Nd isotopic ratios suggesting the involvement of both lithospheric and asthenospheric sources at variable melting degrees (from 4% to less than 15%). The observation that the isotopic compositions of Quaternary alkali basalts south of the studied area are even more depleted suggests an increase in the involvement of asthenospheric source with time.     

Seismic imaging of lithospheric discontinuities and continental evolution

Discontinuities in physical properties within the continental lithosphere reflect a range of processes that have contributed to craton stabilization and evolution. A survey of recent seismological studies concerning lithospheric discontinuities is made in an attempt to document their essential characteristics. Results from long-period seismology are inconsistent with the presence of continuous, laterally invariant, isotropic boundaries within the upper mantle at the global scale. At regional scales, two well-defined interfaces termed H (60 km depth) and L (200 km depth) of continental affinity are identified, with the latter boundary generally exhibiting an anisotropic character. Long-range refraction profiles are frequently characterized by subcontinental mantle that exhibits a complex stratification within the top 200 km. The shallow layering of this package can behave as an imperfect waveguide giving rise to the so-called teleseismic Pn phase, while the L-discontinuity may define its lower base as the culmination of a low velocity zone. High-resolution, seismic reflection profiling provides sufficient detail in a number of cases to document the merging of mantle interfaces into lower continental crust below former collisional sutures and magmatic arcs, thus unambiguously identifying some lithospheric discontinuities with thrust faults and subducted oceanic lithosphere. Collectively, these and other seismic observations point to a continental lithosphere whose internal structure is dominated by a laterally variable, subhorizontal layering. This stratigraphy appears to be more pronounced at shallower lithospheric levels, includes dense, anisotropic layers of order 10 km in thickness, and exhibits horizontal correlation lengths comparable to the lateral dimensions of overlying crustal blocks. A model of craton evolution which relies on shallow subduction as a principal agent of craton stabilization is shown to be broadly compatible with these characteristics.