Dynamics of suspended sediment delivery to the Eastern Mediterranean continental shelf

This study provides data on the fluvial sediment transport at the Eastern Mediterranean, an area in which the regional importance for comparative study has often been raised by investigators but the data are rather scarce. We analysed long‐ and short‐term hydrologic and sedimentological data from one of the largest coastal streams of Israel, Qishon River (1100 km²), and its estuarine environment. The results indicate that during 65 years (1944–2009), a total 140 floods have contributed to the sea an amount of approximately 2.58 × 10⁶ tons of sediment. During this period, (i) the number of floods with a return period of more than 10 years has almost doubled during the last 30 years, and (ii) the mean annual discharge during last 10 years increased by approximately 175%. The analysis of the short (2 years) hydrological and sediment data revealed that approximately 30% of the upstream channel loads do not reach the river mouth and are deposited along the channel bed, even during major flood events. This observation was attributed largely to the facts that the lower river bed is incised below sea level, to the very low slopes and to the correspondingly low stream power and transport capacity. The results of this study highlight the effect of interchannel dynamics as well as the constraints of interaction between fluvial system and estuarine processes on sediment transport. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Decline in the species richness contribution of Echinodermata to the macrobenthos in the shelf seas of China

Echinoderms play crucial roles in the structure of marine macrobenthic communities. They are sensitive to excess absorption of CO₂ by the ocean, which induces ocean acidification and ocean warming. In the shelf seas of China, the mean sea surface temperature has a faster warming rate compared with the mean rate of the global ocean, and the apparent decrease in pH is due not only to the increased CO₂ absorption in seawater, but also eutrophication. However, little is known about the associated changes in the diversity of echinoderms and their roles in macrobenthic communities in the seas of China. In this study, we conducted a meta-analysis of 77 case studies in 51 papers to examine the changes in the contribution of echinoderm species richness to the macrobenthos in the shelf seas of China since the 1980s. The relative species richness (RSR) was considered as the metric to evaluate these changes. Trends analysis revealed significant declines in RSR in the shelf seas of China, the Yellow Sea, and the East China Sea from 1997 to 2009. Compared with the RSR before 1997, no significant changes in mean RSR were found after 1997, except in the Bohai Sea. In addition, relative change in the RSR of echinoderms and species richness of macrobenthos led to more changes (decrease or increase) in their respective biomasses. Our results imply that changes in species richness may alter the macrobenthic productivity of the marine benthic ecosystem.     

Transport of oceanic nitrate from the continental shelf to the coastal basin in relation to the path of the Kuroshio

Hydrographic and biogeochemical observations were conducted along the longitudinal section from Ise Bay to the continental margin (southern coast of Japan) to investigate changes according to the Kuroshio path variations during the summer. The strength of the uplift of the cold deep water was influenced by the surface intrusion of the Kuroshio water to the shelf region. When the intrusion of the Kuroshio surface water to the shelf region was weak in 2006, the cold and NO₃⁻-rich shelf water intruded into the bottom layer in the bay from the shelf. This bottom intrusion was intensified by the large river discharge. The nitrogen isotope ratio (δ¹⁵N) of NO₃⁻ (4–5‰) in the bottom bay water was same as that in the deeper NO₃⁻ over the shelf, indicating the supply of new nitrogen to the bay. The warm and NO₃⁻-poor shelf water intruded into the middle layer via the mixing region at the bay mouth when the Kuroshio water distributed in the coastal areas off Ise Bay in 2005. The regenerated NO₃⁻ with isotopically light nitrogen (δ¹⁵N=−1‰) was supplied from the shelf to the bay. This NO₃⁻ is regenerated by the nitrification in the upper layer over the shelf. The contribution rate of regenerated NO₃⁻ over the shelf to the total NO₃⁻ in the subsurface chlorophyll maximum layer in the bay was estimated at 56% by a two-source mixing model coupled with the Rayleigh equation.     

Modelling the movement of pollutants in the UK shelf seas

The EUROSPILL oil and chemical spill model has been extended to include the transport due to residual currents in the UK shelf seas. Wind-driven circulation patterns for the winter and summer have been derived, and the annual mean (long-term) flow pattern estimated. Current speeds during the winter are typically of the order of 0.05–0.10 m s⁻¹, the summer values show a similar spatial pattern but are considerably weaker. Trajectories over a period of 100 days are presented for a selection of release points arranged on a regular latitude/longitude grid. Estimates of patch size after 300 days are given for releases from sites of heavy shipping and offshore exploration. Use of the method for accident simulation is demonstrated by considering the likely spread of Lindane spilled in the English Channel during March 1989.     

Numerical study of three-dimensional shelf circulation on the Scotian Shelf using a shelf circulation model

A numerical shelf circulation model was developed for the Scotian Shelf, using a nested-grid setup consisting of a three-dimensional baroclinic inner model embedded inside a two-dimensional barotropic outer model. The shelf circulation model is based on the Princeton Ocean Model and driven by three-hourly atmospheric forcing provided by a numerical weather forecast model and by tidal forcing specified at the inner model's open boundaries based on pre-calculated tidal harmonic constants. The outer model simulates the depth-mean circulation forced by wind and atmospheric pressure fields over the northwest Atlantic Ocean with a horizontal resolution of 1/12°. The inner model simulates the three-dimensional circulation over the Gulf of St. Lawrence, the Scotian Shelf, and the adjacent slope with a horizontal resolution of 1/16°. The performance of the shelf circulation model is assessed by comparing model results with oceanographic observations made along the Atlantic coast of Nova Scotia and in the vicinity of Sable Island (on the Scotian Shelf) during two periods: October 2000–March 2001 and April–June 2002. Analysis of model results on Sable Island Bank indicates that tidal currents account for as much as ∼80% of the total variance of near-bottom currents, and currents driven by local winds account for ∼30% of the variance of the non-tidal near-bottom currents. Shelf waves generated remotely by winds and propagating into the region also play an important role in the near-bottom circulation on the bank.     

Geostrophic currents in shelf areas

A method for obtaining geostrophic currents in a stratified ocean is discussed. It combines the use of hydrographic data and numerical modelling. For geostrophic flow in a flatbottom stratified ocean it is shown along the lines of Gill and Clarke (1974, Deep-Sea Research, 21, 325–345) that the surface elevation is determined by the barotropic mode. Experience indicates strongly that this also is the case when the depth varies. Hence the surface elevation, or equivalently the surface velocity, can be obtained from the depth-averaged equations.The variation with depth of the current is determined from hydrographic measurements, assuming that the baroclinic field is in geostrophic balance. When integrating in the vertical, the velocity at the sea surface obtained from the numerical computations is used as an absolute reference velocity.The method has been applied to the flow in the Faroe-Shetland Channel using meteorological data for the atmospheric forcing. The field data are from Foldvik andKvinge (1975), and were collected during ‘Overflow—1973’. The computations were performed for one particular wind event associated with an atmospheric low pressure passage. We find a net flux of 2.9 Sv of Atlantic water into the Norwegian Sea for the considered period of time. At the bottom of the channel there was a flow of 0.7 Sv of Norwegian Sea water into the Atlantic in the same period. On examining our calculated vertical velocity profiles in the channel, we find a level of zero motion which is not far from the position of the 35‰ isohaline. These results are discussed in connection with long-time average fluxes reported elsewhere in the literature.     

Experiments using a long-time-scale shelf circulation model of relevance to the Labrador Current

Experiments are described using a three-dimensional, shelf circulation model. The model geometry consists of a rectangle in latitude-longitude space with a shelf-slope region bordering the northern and western boundaries and a deep ocean region in the southeast. Relatively light water is flushed in through the northern boundary and allowed to exit through the southern boundary, a situation of relevance to the southward flowing Labrador Current. In an earlier paper, we showed the downstream development of a shelf break current. In that paper, bottom friction was parallel to bottom geostrophic velocity. In this paper, bottom friction is parallel to bottom velocity. This leads to a more diffuse downstream jet. We show that changing the density contrast across the front does not change its width. On the other hand, a sharper front is obtained when a small trough is introduced into the bottom topography. We also describe an experiment in which the density of the inflowing water is varied seasonally. This leads to a seasonal redistribution of the southward transport across the shelf, similar to a suggestion made by Myers et al. [(1989) Seasonal and interannual variability of the Labrador Current and West Greenland Current. Department of Fisheries and Oceans, Canada] for the Newfoundland Shelf. This redistribution results from the seasonal pulsing of fresh water down the shelf, which, in turn, influences transport through the Joint Effect of Baroclinicity And Relief (JEBAR), and is similar to the mechanism proposed by Lazier and Wright [(1993) Journal of Physical Oceanography, 23, 659–678].Other results concern the splitting of the shelf break jet. We show that in the previous paper, the splitting of the jet was influenced by the numerical formulation of the outflow condition at the southern boundary. We also show that the splitting can be suppressed by specifying the density of water flowing into the model domain through the southern boundary, rather than allowing this to be determined by the previous history of mixing and outflow on the boundary.     

Features of the central Norwegian shelf circulation

The central Norwegian shelf between 62 and 68°N covers an area of about 150 000 km². The bottom topography is complicated and consists of several shallow banks separated by deeper channels. The area plays an important site-specific role for the recruitment strategy of the Norwegian spring spawning herring. The aim of this contribution is to elucidate the general circulation pattern and the physical processes related to drift and spreading of herring larvae, primarily by the use of satellite-tracked drifting buoys. The results indicate two drift routes; the main inner one on the coastal side of the banks, and a secondary outer one which follows the shelf break. Both routes are highly governed by the bottom topography. The inner transport route is the proper Norwegian Coastal Current characterised by having the higher drift speeds, the lower mean residence time and the higher current directional stability. Several banks at the shelf may induce topographically trapped eddies. The herring seems to prefer to spawn in these eddies.     

A new contribution to the geology of the Egyptian Red Sea shelf using geophysical data

The study examines the Egyptian Red Sea shelf and throws more light on the structural set-up and tectonics controlling the general framework of the area and nature of the crust. Herein, an integrated study using gravity and magnetic data with the available seismic reflection lines and wells information was carried out along the offshore area. The Bouguer and reduced-to-pole aeromagnetic maps were processed and reinterpreted in terms of rifting and plate tectonics. The qualitative interpretation shows that the offshore area is characterized by positive gravity everywhere that extremely increases towards the centre of the graben, supporting the presence of an intrusive zone below the axial/main trough. The gravity data were confirmed by the presence of high magnetic amplitudes, magnetic linearity and several dipoles concentrated along the rift axis for at least 250 km. The lineament analysis indicates widespread of the Erythrean (Red Sea) trend that was offset/cut by transform faults in the NE direction (Aqaba). The tectonic model suggests the presence of one tensional (N65°E) and two compressional (N15°W, N30°W) phases of tectonism, resulted in six cycles of deformations, classified into three left lateral (N35°E, N15°E and N–S) and three right lateral (N85°W, N45°W and N60°W). The basement relief map reveals a rough basement surface that varies in depth between 1 and 5.6 km. It outlines several offshore basins, separated from each other by ridges. The models show that the basement consists of tilted fault blocks, which vary greatly in depth and composition and slopes generally to the west. They indicate that the coastal plain is underlain by acidic basement blocks (continental crust) with no igneous activity while suggesting elevated basic materials (oceanic crust) below the rift axis. The study suggests that northern Red Sea forms an early stage of seafloor spreading or at least moved past the late stage of continental rifting.     

Modeling the response of shoreface-connected sand ridges to sand extraction on an inner shelf

Shoreface-connected sand ridges are rhythmic bedforms that occur on many storm-dominated inner shelves. The ridges span several kilometers, are a few meters high, and they evolve on a timescale of centuries. A process-based model is used to gain a fundamental insight into the response of these ridges to extraction of sand. Different scenarios of sand extraction (depth, location, and geometry of the extraction area; multiple sand extractions) are imposed. For each scenario, the response timescale as well as the characteristics of the new equilibrium state are determined. Results show that ridges partially restore after extraction, i.e., the disturbed bathymetry recovers on decadal timescales. However, in the end, the ridge original sand volume is not recovered. Initially, most sand that accomplishes the infill of the pit originates from the area upstream of the extraction, as well as from the areas surrounding the pit. The contribution of the latter strongly decreases in the subsequent time period. Depending on the location of the pit, additional sand sources contribute: First, if the pit is located close to the downstream trough, the pit gains sand by reduction of sand transport from the ridge to this trough. Second, if the pit is located close to the adjacent outer shelf, the ridge recovery is stronger due to an import of sand from that area. Furthermore, pits that are located close to the nearshore zone have a weak recovery, deeper pits have longer recovery timescales, wide and shallow pits recover most sand, while multiple sand pits slow down the recovery process.     

Isolated turbidity maxima in shelf seas

Visible-band satellite pictures of the Irish Sea reveal the presence of isolated areas of enhanced turbidity which are geographically fixed and present all year, although they are more strongly marked in winter. The positions of these maxima coincide with areas of fast tidal currents: some of the dissipated tidal energy is used to raise fine sediments into suspension, producing the turbidity. However, there is no obvious source of fine sediment at the maxima, and without a source they would be expected to diffuse away, down the turbidity gradient. Their continued presence is therefore a puzzle, and it has proved difficult to reproduce these features in numerical models. Recent observations, presented here, suggest a possible mechanism by which isolated turbidity maxima may be maintained. These measurements show that the gradients of concentration on the sides of the turbidity maximum are in opposite senses for different particle sizes, and that there is a flux of fine particles out of the maximum and one of larger particles into it. A mechanism which can explain this observation, and which can also explain the continued presence of turbidity maxima isolated from a local source is as follows: the high turbulent energy levels at the centre of the patch tear flocculated particles apart. These fine particles then diffuse away down the gradient of fine particles and to areas of lower energy. Here they aggregate to form larger particles which diffuse back down the gradient of large particles towards the centre of the turbidity maximum, where they are torn up and the cycle continues. The source of material for the turbidity maxima is therefore larger flocculated particles in the surrounding water. This idea is tested quantitatively with an analytical solution to the steady-state diffusion equation incorporating aggregation and dis-aggregation of particles as simple functions of turbulent energy. The solution shows that isolated maxima of fine suspended particles can be maintained at regions of high turbulence without the necessity to invoke a local (non-sustainable) source. Within the maximum, strong vertical mixing lifts the slow settling fine particles to the surface to produce an isolated surface turbidity maximum as observed. We conclude that for models to successfully produce turbidity maxima in the presence of diffusion they should incorporate at least two particle size classes and aggregation and dis-aggregation of particles according to the local level of turbulence.     

A semi-implicit scheme for the shallow water equations for application to shelf sea modelling

A semi-implicit scheme for the numerical solution of the shallow water equations is proposed. The scheme is suitable for the simulation of shelf sea dynamics as is demonstrated by some examples of successful application covering a range of grid sizes typical for shelf sea models. The basic outlines of the method are presented. Some practical aspects of computation are discussed which illustrate that an explicit model can be modified easily to the semi-implicit version proposed here. Compared to explicit schemes the semi-implicit approach has two major advantages: (1) its economy (a saving of at least 50% in computing time can be achieved); (2) a closer match is obtained between the time-stepping procedure and the time scales of processes, the spatial scales of which are close to the lower limit of the resolution of the model grid.     

Contribution of phytoplankton and benthic microalgae to inner shelf sediments of the north-central Gulf of Mexico

Marine sediment may contain both settled phytoplankton and benthic microalgae (BMA). In river-dominated, shallow continental shelf systems, spatial, and temporal heterogeneity in sediment type and water-column characteristics (e.g., turbidity and primary productivity) may promote spatial variation in the relative contribution of these two sources to the sediment organic matter pool available to benthic consumers. Here we use photosynthetic pigment analysis and microscopic examination of sediment microalgae to investigate how the biomass, composition, and degradation state of sediment-associated microalgae vary along the Louisiana (USA) inner shelf, a region strongly influenced by the Mississippi River. Three sandy shoals and surrounding muddy sediments with depths ranging from 4 to 20 m were sampled in April, August, and October 2007. Pigment composition suggested that sediment microalgae were primarily diatoms at all locations. We found no significant differences in sediment chlorophyll a concentrations (8–77 mg m⁻²) at the shoal and off-shoal stations. Epipelic pennate diatoms (considered indicative of BMA) made up a significantly greater proportion of sediment diatoms at sandy (50–98%) compared to more silty off-shoal stations (16–56%). The percentage of centric diatoms (indicators of settled phytoplankton) in the sediment was highest in August. Sediment total pheopigment concentrations on sandy stations (<20 mg m⁻²) were significantly lower than concentrations at nearby muddy stations (>40 mg m⁻²), suggesting differences in sediment microalgal degradation state. These observations suggest that BMA predominate in shallow sandy sediments and that phytodetritus predominates at muddy stations. Our results also suggest that the relative proportion of phytodetritus in the benthos was highest where phytoplankton biomass in the overlying water was greatest, independent of sediment type. The high biomass of BMA found on shoals suggests that benthic primary production on sandy sediments represents a potentially significant local source of sediment microalgal carbon that may be utilized by benthic consumers in continental shelf food webs.     

Determination of the wave climate for the southern Brazilian shelf

The main objective of this study is the characterization of the wave climate in the Southern Brazilian Shelf (SBS) based on a thorough review of existing field data and on numerical modeling experiments. A quantitative knowledge about the wave climate of this area is important to understand the mechanisms driving episodic mud bank attachments to the sandy shore, and the interaction of these banks with the flow and waves. The statistical analysis of existent data on the wave climate throughout the SBS indicates that the predominant wave directions are 100° and 160° (E–SE), with wave heights varying between 1 and 1.50 m. The wave period varies between 6 and 14 s, with predominance of mean wave period of 8 s (sea conditions) and 12 s (swell conditions). The spectral wave model SWAN version 40.41 [Booij, N., Haagsma, I.J.G., Holthuijsen, L.H., Kieftenburg, A.T.M.M., Ris, R.C., van der Westhuysen, A.J., Zijlema, M., 2004. SWAN Cycle III Version 40.41 Users Manual, Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands, p. 118, http://fluidmechanics.tudelft.nl/swan/index.htm] is used to simulate the wave climate for the region. Special attention is given to Cassino Beach, describing the wave climate observed during the Cassino Experiment, carried out in 2005. The verification of the standard SWAN model was carried out based on the comparison between numerical modeling results and available data of significant wave height, peak period, mean wave direction and energy density for the period relative to February of 1998. Results showed satisfactory model predictions of significant wave height and reasonably accurate predictions of peak spectral wave period and direction. The model performance is also considered satisfactory in the representation of the wave climate of the region when the wave spectrum has only one spectral peak, but presents limitations for bimodal wave spectrum. When two spectral peaks are observed, the SWAN model agrees with the spectral level observed in the low frequency, but underestimates the spectral level in the high-frequency band. When considering the presence of mud deposits in the area, model results predict that although the presence of mud attenuates most of the wave energy on the low frequency peak, it has a smaller effect in attenuating the wave energy on the high frequency peak.     

A model of secondary upwelling over the shelf break

Motivated by our puzzling high-resolution radar observations of surface vortices in the nearly rectangular Gulf of Eilat/Aqaba, northern Red Sea, we propose and explore the driven cavity approach to this geophysical phenomenon. While the lid-driven cavity has long been considered a benchmark problem in computational fluid dynamics, its oceanographic context has not been considered. Despite the additional effects of rotation and stratification, our modeling demonstrates that when the fluid within a cavity geometrically similar to the Gulf of Eilat is driven by the external current, an interior vortex can develop as in our observations. Furthermore, the Eilat vortices appear only under relatively calm conditions, adding evidence to the intriguing possibility of their simple shear-driven origin.     

Future wave climate over the west-European shelf seas

In this paper, we investigate changes in the wave climate of the west-European shelf seas under global warming scenarios. In particular, climate change wind fields corresponding to the present (control) time-slice 1961–2000 and the future (scenario) time-slice 2061–2100 are used to drive a wave generation model to produce equivalent control and scenario wave climate. Yearly and seasonal statistics of the scenario wave climates are compared individually to the corresponding control wave climate to identify relative changes of statistical significance between present and future extreme and prevailing wave heights. Using global, regional and linked global–regional wind forcing over a set of nested computational domains, this paper further demonstrates the sensitivity of the results to the resolution and coverage of the forcing. It suggests that the use of combined forcing from linked global and regional climate models of typical resolution and coverage is a good option for the investigation of relative wave changes in the region of interest of this study. Coarse resolution global forcing alone leads to very similar results over regions that are highly exposed to the Atlantic Ocean. In contrast, fine resolution regional forcing alone is shown to be insufficient for exploring wave climate changes over the western European waters because of its limited coverage. Results obtained with the combined global–regional wind forcing showed some consistency between scenarios. In general, it was shown that mean and extreme wave heights will increase in the future only in winter and only in the southwest of UK and west of France, north of about 44–45° N. Otherwise, wave heights are projected to decrease, especially in summer. Nevertheless, this decrease is dominated by local wind waves whilst swell is found to increase. Only in spring do both swell and local wind waves decrease in average height.