Nakhlak carbonate-hosted Pb(Ag) deposit,Isfahan province,Iran: a geological,mineralogical, geochemical,fluid inclusion,and sulfur isotope study

The Upper Cretaceous Nakhlak epigenetic vein-type Pb(Ag) deposit is located 55 km northeast of the town of Anarak in Isfahan Province, Iran. The deposit contains 7 Mt of galena-barite ore with an average grade of 8.33% Pb, 0.38% Zn, and 72 ppm Ag. The ore mineralization occurs as stratabound, epigenetic, steeply dipping, east-west–trending veins in faulted- or fracture-controlled Upper Cretaceous Sadar carbonates. Galena and barite are the primary minerals. Minor sphalerite, tennantite-tetrahedrite, pyrite, and chalcopyrite occur as inclusions in galena. Cerussite with minor amounts of anglesite and plattnerite formed in the oxidized supergene zone. The ore and ore-related minerals were deposited in the hydrothermally dolomitized carbonate host rock containing saddle-shaped dolomite. Geochemically, the dolomitized carbonate host rocks are enriched in MgO, Fe₂O₃, MnO, Pb, Zn, and Ba, but depleted in CaO. The galena concentrate contains high values of Ag (932 ppm), Sb (342 ppm), Cu (422 ppm), As (91 ppm), and Zn (296 ppm); the presence of these trace elements indicates a low-temperature type of galena mineralization. This interpretation is corroborated by fluid inclusions containing 12.98 wt.% NaCl equivalent salinity; the inclusions homogenize at the low temperature of about 152.1 °C. The similarity between δ³⁴S_(V-CDT) values in Nakhlak barite and Permian–Triassic δ³⁴S marine sulfate values indicates that the Nakhlak sulfur was probably provided from evaporates of Permian–Triassic age. The δ³⁴S_(V-CDT) values of galena and barite samples occupy the ranges of − 1.04‰ to + 8.62‰ and + 10.95‰ to + 13.71‰, respectively, and are similar to Mississippi Valley–type (MVT) deposits. The low-temperature basinal fluids, evaporate-originated sulfur, and fault- or fracture-controlled galena-rich veins in the Nakhlak deposit resemble the type of geological features documented in Pb-rich MVT deposits.     

四川天宝山铅锌矿床的锌-硫同位素组成及成矿物质来源

四川天宝山铅锌矿床位于扬子板块西南缘,赋矿地层为上震旦统灯影组白云岩。尽管这个地区已有大量的科研工作,但其成矿物质来源仍然存在争议。本文主要测定了闪锌矿微区样品的锌和硫同位素组成,以及三个中段的闪锌矿单矿物、上震旦统灯影组白云岩和会理群天宝山组砂岩的锌同位素组成。闪锌矿微区样品的δ~(66)Zn值介于0.39‰~0.52‰之间,平均值为0.46‰,δ~(34)SCDT值介于4.24‰~4.87‰之间,平均值为4.59‰。同一块手标本上闪锌矿微区样品具有均一的锌同位素组成表明小尺度上(10×10cm~2)热液流体具有均一的锌同位素组成。在大尺度上(矿体),三个中段的闪锌矿的锌同位素组成范围变化较大,其δ~(66)Zn值介于0.15‰~0.73‰之间。同一块手标本上早期阶段的闪锌矿具有更重的锌同位素组成表明早期阶段的成矿流体可能具有更重的锌同位素组成。三个中段闪锌矿的锌同位素组成变化主要受成矿流体中锌同位素组成和成矿流体的迁移就位途径控制。上震旦统灯影组白云岩的δ~(66)Zn值介于0.06‰~0.35‰之间,平均值为0.21‰,暗示热液淋滤控制了灯影组白云岩的锌同位素组成。会理群天宝山组砂岩的δ~(66)Zn值为0.62‰,可能代表了未经热液淋滤的沉积端元的锌同位素组成。本次研究表明天宝山铅锌矿床的锌主要来源于上震旦统灯影组白云岩,但不能排除白云岩之上的沉积盖层、基底和更深物质的贡献;硫主要来源于上震旦统灯影组地层中的蒸发岩(主要通过热化学还原作用形成还原硫)。     

湘南宝山铅锌矿床硫、铅、碳、氧同位素特征及成矿物质来源

宝山铅锌矿床是湘南地区代表性矿床之一。宝山铅锌矿床的成矿作用与156~158 Ma的宝山花岗闪长斑岩密切相关。花岗闪长斑岩主要由古老地壳部分熔融而成。为确定成矿物质来源,文章系统研究了宝山铅锌矿床的硫、铅、碳、氧同位素组成特征。矿床中硫化物黄铁矿、闪锌矿、方铅矿的δ34S值呈狭窄的塔式分布,变化在-2.17‰~6.46‰之间,平均值为3.13‰。δ34S值总体表现为δ34S黄铁矿δ34S闪锌矿δ34S方铅矿,表明硫同位素分馏基本达到了平衡。矿石、花岗闪长斑岩和赋矿地层硫同位素对比研究表明,矿石中的硫主要由岩浆分异演化而来,岩浆中的硫主要来自古老地壳。矿石206Pb/204Pb、207Pb/204Pb和208Pb/204Pb比值分别为18.188~18.844、15.661~15.843和38.562~39.912,赋矿地层206Pb/204Pb、207Pb/204Pb和208Pb/204Pb比值分别为18.268~19.166、15.620~5.721和38.364~39.952。矿石铅同位素组成比地层中的更富放射性成因铅,矿石中部分铅来自宝山花岗闪长质岩浆,在成矿流体运移过程中有部分地层铅参与了成矿,岩浆中的铅主要来自古老地壳。热液方解石的碳、氧同位素组成介于岩浆和赋矿碳酸盐岩的碳、氧同位素之间,主要是由于岩浆流体和碳酸盐岩不同比例的水岩反应所致,测水组有机碳的加入造成了部分热液方解石δ13CPDB值偏低。     

Geologic, fluid inclusion and isotopic characteristics of the Jinding Zn–Pb deposit, western Yunnan, South China: A review

With a reserve of  200 Mt ore grading 6.08% Zn and 1.29% Pb (i.e., a metal reserve of  15 Mt) hosted in Cretaceous and Tertiary terrestrial rocks, the Jinding deposit is the largest Zn–Pb deposit in China, and also the youngest sediment-hosted super giant Zn–Pb deposit in the world. The deposit mainly occurs in the Jinding dome structure as tabular orebodies within breccia-bearing sandstones of the Palaeocene Yunlong Formation (autochthonous) and in the overlying sandstones of the Early Cretaceous Jingxing Formation (allochthonous). The deposit is not stratiform and no exhalative sedimentary rocks have been observed. The occurrence of the orebodies, presence of hangingwall alteration, and replacement and open-space filling textures all indicate an epigenetic origin. Formation of the Jinding Zn–Pb deposit is related to a period of major continental crust movement during the collision of the Indian and Eurasian Plates. The westward thrusts and dome structure were successively developed in the Palaeocene sedimentary rocks in the ore district, and Zn–Pb mineralisation appears to have taken place in the early stage of the doming processes.The study of fluid inclusions in sphalerite and associated gangue minerals (quartz, celestine, calcite and gypsum) shows that homogenisation temperatures ranged from 54 to 309 °C and cluster around 110 to 150 °C, with salinities of 1.6 to 18.0 wt.% NaCl equiv. Inert gas isotope studies from inclusions in ore- and gangue-minerals reveal 2.0 to 15.6% mantle He, 53% mantle Ne and a considerable amount of mantle Xe in the ore-forming fluids. The Pb-isotope composition of ores shows that the metal is mainly of mantle origin, mixed with a lesser amount of crustal lead. The widely variable and negative δ³⁴S values of Jinding sulphides suggest that thermo-chemical or bacterial sulphate reduction produced reduced sulphur for deposition of the Zn–Pb sulphides. The mixing of a mantle-sourced fluid enriched in metals and CO₂ with reduced sulphide-bearing saline formation water in a structural–lithologic trap may have been the key mechanism for the formation of the Jinding deposit.The Jinding deposit differs from known major types of sediment-hosted Zn–Pb deposits in the world, including sandstone-type (SST), Mississippi Valley type (MVT) and sedimentary-exhalative (SEDEX). Although the fine-grained ore texture and high Zn/Pb ratios are similar to those in SEDEX deposits, the Jinding deposit lacks any exhalative sedimentary rocks. Like MVT deposits, Jinding is characterised by simple mineralogy, epigenetic features and involvement of basinal brines in mineralisation, but its host rocks are mainly sandstones and breccia-bearing sandstones. The Jinding deposit is also different from SST deposits with its high Zn/Pb ratios, among other characteristics. Most importantly, the Jinding deposit was formed in an intracontinental terrestrial basin with an active tectonic history in relation to plate collision, and mantle-sourced fluids and metals played a major role in ore formation, which is not the case for SEDEX, MVT, and SST. We propose that Jinding represents a new type of sediment-hosted Zn–Pb deposit, named the ‘Jinding type’.     

The Paleozoic Ozbak-Kuh carbonate-hosted Pb-Zn deposit of East Central Iran: Isotope (C,O, S,Pb) geochemistry and ore genesis

Lead and zinc mineralization occurs in dolostones of the Middle Devonian Sibzar Formation at Ozbak-Kuh, which is located 150 km north of Tabas city in East Central Iran. The ore is composed of galena, sphalerite and calcite, with subordinate dolomite and bitumen. Wall-rock alterations include carbonate recrystallization and dolomitization. Microscopic studies reveal that the host rock is replaced by galena and sphalerite. The Pb–Zn mineralization is epigenetic and stratabound. The δ¹³C values of hydrothermal calcite samples fall in the narrow range between ?0.3‰ and 0.8‰. The δ¹⁸O values in calcite display a wider range, between ?14.5‰ and ?11.9‰. The δ¹³C and δ¹⁸O values overlap with the oxygen and carbon isotopic compositions of Paleozoic seawater, indicating the possible important participation of Paleozoic seawater in the ore-forming fluid. The δ¹⁸O signature corresponds to a spread in temperature of about 70 °C in the ore-bearing fluid. The δ¹³C values indicate that the organic materials within the host rocks did not contribute significantly in the hydrothermal fluid. The δ³⁴S values of galena and sphalerite samples occupy the ranges of 12.2‰–16.0‰ and 12.1–16.8‰, respectively. These values reveal that the seawater sulfate is the most probable source of sulfur. The reduced sulfur was most likely supplied through thermochemical sulfate reduction. The sulfur isotope ratios of co-precipitated sphalerite–galena pairs suggest that deposition of the sulfide minerals took place under chemical disequilibrium conditions. The ²⁰⁶Pb/²⁰⁴Pb, ²⁰⁷Pb/²⁰⁴Pb, and ²⁰⁸Pb/²⁰⁴Pb ratios of the galena samples represent average values of 18.08, 15.66, and 38.50, respectively. These ratios indicate that galena Pb likely originated from an orogenic source in which supracrustal rocks with high ²³⁸U/²⁰⁴Pb and ²³²Th/²⁰⁴Pb ratios are dominant. The average lead isotope model age portrays Cambrian age. This model age is not coeval with the host rocks, which are of middle Devonian age. It is probable that the pre-Middle Devonian model age shows the derivation of Pb from older sources either from host rocks of Cambrian age or from deposits previously formed in these rock units. The Pb isotopic composition of galena accords with the occurrence of an orogenic activity from Late Neoproterozoic to Lower Cambrian in Central Iran. The proposed genetic model considers the fact that mineralization formed in fractured and brecciated host rocks along shear zones and faults from metal-bearing connate waters that were discharged due to deformational dewatering of sediments.     

Rare earth element and stable isotope (O, S) geochemistry of barite from the Bijgan deposit, Markazi Province, Iran

The Bijgan barite deposit, which is located northeast of Delijan in Markazi Province of Iran, occurs as a small lenticular body at the uppermost part of an Eocene volcano-sedimentary rock unit. The presence of fossiliferous and carbonaceous strata suggests that the host rocks were deposited in a quiet marine sedimentary environment. Barite, calcite, iron oxides and carbonaceous clay materials are found as massive patches as well as thin layers in the deposit. Barite is marked by very low concentrations of Sr (1–2%) and total amounts of rare earth elements (REEs) (6.25–17.39?ppm). Chondrite-normalized REE patterns of barite indicate a fractionation of light REEs (LREEs) from La to Sm, similar to those for barite of different origins from elsewhere. The La_CN/Lu_CN ratios and chondrite-normalized REE patterns reveal that barite in the Bijgan deposit is enriched in LREE relative to heavy rare earth elements (HREEs). The similarity between the Ce/La ratios in the barite samples and those found in deep-sea barite supports a marine origin for barite. Lanthanum and Gd exhibit positive anomalies, which are common features of marine chemical sediments. Cerium shows a negative anomaly in most samples that was inherited from the negative Ce anomaly of hydrothermal fluid that mixed with seawater at the time of barite precipitation. The δ¹⁸O values of barites show a narrow range of 9.1–11.4‰, which is close to or slightly lower than that of contemporaneous seawater at the end of the Eocene. This suggests a contribution of oxygen from seawater in the barite-forming solution. The δ³⁴S values of barites (9.5–15.3‰) are lower than that of contemporaneous seawater, which suggests a contribution of magmatic sulfur to the ore-forming solution. The oxygen and sulfur isotope ratios indicate that submarine hydrothermal vent fluids are a good analog for solutions that precipitated barite, due to similarities in the isotopic composition of the sulfates. The available data including tectonic setting, host rock characteristics, REE geochemistry, and oxygen and sulfur isotopic compositions support a submarine hydrothermal origin for the Bijgan barite deposit. At the seafloor, barite deposition occurred where ascending Ba-bearing hydrothermal fluids encountered seawater. Sulfate was derived from the sulfate-bearing marine waters, and, to a lesser extent, by oxidized H₂S, which was derived from magmatic hydrothermal fluids.     

豫西南赤土店铅锌矿床地质、流体包裹体和S、Pb同位素地球化学特征

豫西南栾川地区近年铅锌矿勘查取得显著进展,显示出良好的资源前景。赤土店铅锌矿床是新发现的铅锌矿之一,从控矿要素和矿体产状看,有两种矿化类型,即北西西向断裂构造控制的脉状铅锌矿,和石宝沟岩体外围矽卡岩带中的铅锌矿,并以前者为主。在空间上围绕斑岩体往外,构成近斑岩体发育矽卡岩型钼矿化,远斑岩体接触带的围岩矽卡岩中发育矽卡岩型多金属矿床,在斑岩体外围的断裂带中发育脉型铅锌银矿床的空间分布或分带规律。流体包裹体研究显示,成矿阶段温度较高(290～340℃),流体含大量CO2,并发生过流体不混溶分离。S同位素组成(0.20‰～8.30‰,平均3.93‰)显示,硫有深部岩浆(区内斑岩硫集中在2‰～4‰)和地层(分别集中在-13‰～-8‰和6‰～11‰两个区间)两种来源。被矿相学研究证实共生的方铅矿-闪锌矿矿物对计算出平衡温度为388.29℃,亦显示高温特征。Pb同位素组成(206Pb/204Pb=17.005～l7.953,207Pb/204Pb=15.414～15.587,208Pb/204Pb=37.948～39.03)反映,脉状铅锌矿成矿物质可能主要来自斑岩,部分来自地层。综合分析认为,赤土店矿床为与燕山期斑岩有关的铅锌矿,其脉状矿体为岩浆热液充填-交代成因类型。     

Outokumpu revisited: New mineral deposit model for the mantle peridotite-associated Cu–Co–Zn–Ni–Ag–Au sulphide deposits

The metaturbidites of the Palaeoproterozoic Jormua–Outokumpu thrust belt in eastern Finland enclose m- to km-scale ultramafic massifs that are distributed over an area of more than 5000 km². These bodies, which almost entirely consist of highly depleted mantle peridotites (now metaserpentinites and metaperidotites), are intimately associated with massive to semimassive, polymetallic Cu–Co–Zn–Ni–Ag–Au sulphide deposits that sustained mining in the region between 1913 and 1988. Currently, one deposit (Kylylahti) is proceeding into a definitive feasibility study emphasising the renewed economic interest for Outokumpu-type deposits.The origin of these Outokumpu-type Cu–Co–Zn–Ni–Ag–Au deposits is now re-interpreted to be polygenetic. First, their formation requires deposition of a Cu-rich proto-ore within peridotitic sea floor at  1950 Ma. Close modern analogues to the proto-ore setting include, for example, the Logatchev and Rainbow fields at the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, where venting of high-T–low-pH hydrothermal fluid resulted in accumulations of Cu–Zn–Co–Ag–Au sulphides on serpentinised ultramafic seafloor. Second, the Ni-rich composition of Outokumpu sulphide ores calls for a separate source for nickel: Some 40 Ma after the deposition of the Cu-rich proto-ore – concomitant with the obduction of the ultramafic massifs – disseminated Ni sulphides formed through chemical interaction between obducting peridotite massifs and adjacent black schists. This process was related to listwaenite–birbirite type carbonate–silica alteration at margins of the ultramafic massifs. Due to this alteration, silicate nickel was released from the primary Fe–Mg silicates and redeposited as Ni sulphides in the alteration fringes of the massifs.We propose that syntectonic mixing of these two “end-member” sulphides, i.e., the primary Cu-rich proto-ore and the secondary Ni-sulphide disseminations, resulted in the uncommon metal combination of the Outokumpu-type sulphides. Late tectonic solid-state re-mobilisation, related to the duplexing of the ore by isoclinal folding, upgraded the sulphides into economic deposits.     

冀东地区太阳沟钼矿床成因探讨：来自年代学、地球化学及S、Pb同位素的证据

太阳沟钼矿床位于冀东地区,矿区内出露的岩性主要为花岗斑岩和黑云母二长花岗岩,矿体主要赋存于花岗斑岩及其围岩接触带内,多呈透镜状、脉状产出。本文通过锆石U- Pb定年、全岩地球化学分析、辉钼矿Re- Os同位素测年及金属矿物S、Pb同位素分析,对太阳沟钼矿床的成岩、成矿时代准确厘定,并对矿床成因及成矿过程进行探讨。锆石U- Pb定年结果显示,花岗斑岩与黑云母二长花岗岩样品的206Pb/238U加权平均年龄分别为154. 8±1. 5Ma、156. 5±1. 2Ma。辉钼矿的Re- Os同位素测年获得155. 79±0. 93Ma的模式年龄加权平均值,与锆石U- Pb年龄在误差范围内一致,表明其为晚侏罗世构造- 岩浆活动产物。全岩地球化学特征表现为高硅、富碱,属准铝质、高钾钙碱性系列;相对富集轻稀土元素和Rb、Sr等大离子亲石元素,亏损重稀土元素和Nb、Ta等高场强元素,属高分异I型花岗岩。黄铁矿S、Pb同位素分析结果表明,S同位素组成分布比较集中,δ34S黄铁矿值均为正值（介于1. 3‰~1. 8‰之间,平均值为1. 53‰）;Pb同位素组成较为均一（206Pb/204Pb值范围为16. 76~17. 44,207Pb/204Pb值范围为15. 28~15. 43,208Pb/204Pb值范围为36. 64~37. 46）,均显示成矿物质主要来自受地幔混染的下地壳物质熔融。综合岩石学、年代学、地球化学及S、Pb同位素特征,本文认为：太阳沟钼矿床属于斑岩型钼矿床,是晚侏罗世古太平洋板块俯冲产生的壳幔相互作用引发下地壳物质部分重熔,富集大量的金属元素（Mo）,最终上升侵位、沉淀成矿。     

Geological features and origin of the Huize carbonate-hosted Zn–Pb–(Ag) District, Yunnan, South China

The Huize Zn–Pb–(Ag) district, in the Sichuan–Yunnan–Guizhou Zn–Pb–(Ag) metallogenic region, contains significant high-grade, Zn–Pb–(Ag) deposits. The total metal reserve of Zn and Pb exceeds 5 Mt. The district has the following geological characteristics: (1) high ore grade (Zn + Pb ≥ 25 wt.%); (2) enrichment in Ag and a range of other trace elements (Ge, In, Ga, Cd, and Tl), with galena, sphalerite, and pyrite being the major carriers of Ag, Ge, Cd and Tl; (3) ore distribution controlled by both structural and lithological features; (4) simple and limited wall-rock alteration; (5) mineral zonation within the orebodies; and (6) the presence of evaporite layers in the ore-hosting wall rocks of the Early Carboniferous Baizuo Formation and the underlying basement.Fluid-inclusion and isotope geochemical data indicate that the ore fluid has homogenisation temperatures of 165–220 °C, and salinities of 6.6–12 wt.% NaCl equiv., and that the ore-forming fluids and metals were predominantly derived from the Kunyang Group basement rocks and the evaporite-bearing rocks of the cover strata. Ores were deposited along favourable, specific ore-controlling structures. The new laboratory and field studies indicate that the Huize Zn–Pb–(Ag) district is not a carbonate-replacement deposit containing massive sulphides, but rather the deposits can be designated as deformed, carbonate-hosted, MVT-type deposits. Detailed study of the deposits has provided new clues to the localisation of concealed orebodies in the Huize Zn–Pb–(Ag) district and of the potential for similar carbonate-hosted sulphide deposits elsewhere in NE Yunnan Province, as well as the Sichuan–Yunnan–Guizhou Zn–Pb–(Ag) metallogenic region.     

西藏申扎县雄梅铜矿床的硫、铅同位素特征及其成矿意义

西藏雄梅斑岩型铜矿床位于班公湖-怒江成矿带中段的申扎县雄梅乡。矿区岩石类型由含矿花岗闪长斑岩、孔雀石化次生石英岩及含矿角岩化砂板岩组成。该矿床自2012年发现以来尚未开展成因方面的深入研究,作者旨在通过对矿区硫化物硫、铅同位素的系统研究,查明矿区的成矿物质来源,并通过与成矿带西段多龙矿集区斑岩铜矿成因的对比研究,对本地区的成矿潜力做出评价。测试结果表明,雄梅铜矿矿石硫化物的δ34S值为-2.5‰~6.1‰,硫同位素呈塔式分布,显示岩浆硫特征;铅同位素组成~(206)Pb/~(204)Pb、~(207)Pb/~(204)Pb、~(208)Pb/~(204)Pb比值分别为18.220~19.005、15.626~15.770、38.510~39.856,显示正常铅的特征。对铅同位素的源区分析,显示样品大致分布于上地壳端员。铅μ值在9.51~9.78之间,也表明硫化物样品具壳源的特征。与多龙矿集区成矿条件的对比研究,发现两者都是形成于造山带的碰撞后伸展环境,成矿物质来源上两者存在一些差异。良好的构造成矿环境,表明了本地区优越的找矿前景。     

云南禄劝噜鲁铅锌矿床铷-锶同位素年代学与硫、铅同位素地球化学特征

云南禄劝噜鲁铅锌矿床地处扬子地块西南缘,矿体赋存于下寒武统梅树村组下段,呈脉状、似层状产出。矿石矿物主要有方铅矿、闪锌矿、黄铁矿等;脉石矿物主要有重晶石、石英、方解石。噜鲁铅锌矿床硫化物成矿时的~(87)Sr/~(86)Sr值为0.7112~0.7115,暗示成矿物质可能来自于基底地层;Rb-Sr等时线年龄为202.8±1.4Ma,成矿年龄为印支晚期—燕山早期。硫化物硫同位素组成δ~(34)S变化范围为6.33‰~9.75‰,暗示成矿流体中的硫主要是海相硫酸盐热化学还原的产物;铅同位素~(206)Pb/~(204)Pb、~(207)Pb/~(204)Pb、~(208)Pb/~(204)Pb变化范围分别为18.259~18.342、15.608~15.639、38.46~38.821,位于上地壳和造山带铅演化线之间,落入基底岩石(昆阳群)及不同时代碳酸盐岩铅同位素组成范围内,表明成矿物质具有壳源特征,主要由基底岩石提供。综合各类地质-地球化学信息认为,噜鲁铅锌矿床成矿流体中不同组分来源不同,但主要来自于基底地层,成矿机制是在印支运动强驱动力的作用下,促使含矿基底地层成矿元素活化-迁移混合-空间就位,形成工业矿床。     

A stable isotope and fluid inclusion study of the Qaleh-ZariCu–Au–Ag deposit, Khorasan Province, Iran

The Qaleh-Zari copper deposit, located in South Khorasan in the Central Lut region of Iran, is a polymetallic vein deposit with major amounts of Cu, Au, Ag and minor amounts of Pb, Zn and Bi. Mineralization occurs in a series of NW–SE trending fault planes and breccia zones in Paleogene andesitic to basaltic volcanic rocks. Argillization, sericitization and propylitization characterize alteration halos bordering mineral veins. The main ore minerals are chalcopyrite, pyrite, galena and sphalerite, with quartz, calcite and minor chlorite as the main gangue phases. Microthermometric measurements of fluid inclusions in cogenetic quartz indicate homogenization temperatures between 160 and 300 °C and salinities from 1 to 4 wt% NaCl equiv. Boiling occurred in the mineralising fluids at 160–1000 m below the paleo-water table at pressures of approximately 15−80 bar at various stages in the formation of the ore body. The wide range of pressures and temperatures reflects the multi-stage nature of the mineralization at Qaleh-Zari. The δ¹⁸O values in quartz (relative to SMOW) and δ³⁴S values in chalcopyrite and galena (relative to CDT) range from 6.5 to 7.5‰ and 0.0–1.5‰ (mean: 7.0‰), respectively. At 300 °C, calculated fluid δ¹⁸O values are close to 0‰. These data suggest a magmatic origin for sulfur and a surficial origin for the mineralizing fluid. Mineralization at Qaleh-Zari is interpreted as epithermal and low-sulfidation in style and was probably related to a deep-seated magmatic system. Ore deposition was the result of boiling, cooling and pressure reduction.     

The Paleoproterozoic carbonate-hosted Pering Zn–Pb deposit, South Africa. II: fluid inclusion, fluid chemistry and stable isotope constraints

The Pering deposit is the prime example of Zn–Pb mineralisation hosted by stromatolitic dolostones of the Neoarchean to Paleoproterozoic Transvaal Supergroup. The hydrothermal deposit centers on subvertical breccia pipes that crosscut stromatolitic dolostones of the Reivilo Formation, the lowermost portion of the Campbellrand Subgroup. Four distinct stages of hydrothermal mineralisation are recognised. Early pyritic rock matrix brecciation is followed by collomorphous sphalerite mineralisation with replacive character, which, in turn, is succeeded by coarse grained open-space-infill of sphalerite, galena, sparry dolomite, and quartz. Together, the latter two stages account for ore-grade Zn–Pb mineralisation. The fourth and final paragenetic stage is characterised by open-space-infill by coarse sparry calcite. The present study documents the results of a detailed geochemical study of the Pering deposit, including fluid inclusion microthermometry, fluid chemistry and stable isotope geochemistry of sulphides (δ³⁴S) and carbonate gangue (δ¹³C and δ¹⁸O). Microthermometric fluid inclusion studies carried out on a series of coarsely grained crystalline quartz and sphalerite samples of the latter, open-space-infill stage of the main mineralisation event reveal the presence of three major fluid types: (1) a halite–saturated aqueous fluid H₂O–NaCl–CaCl₂ (>33 wt% NaCl equivalent) brine, (2) low-salinity meteoric fluid (<7 wt% NaCl) and (3) a carbonic CH₄–CO₂–HS⁻ fluid that may be derived from organic material present within the host dolostone. Mixing of these fluids have given rise to variable mixtures (H₂O–CaCl₂–NaCl ±(CH₄–CO₂–HS⁻), 2 to 25 wt% NaCl+CaCl₂). Heterogeneous trapping of the aqueous and carbonic fluids occurred under conditions of immiscibility. Fluid temperature and pressure conditions during mineralisation are determined to be 200–210°C and 1.1–1.4 kbar, corresponding to a depth of mineralisation of 4.1–5.2 km. Chemical analyses of the brine inclusions show them to be dominated by Na and Cl with lesser amounts of Ca, K and SO₄. Fluid ratios of Cl/Br indicate that they originated as halite saturated seawater brines that mixed with lower salinity fluids. Analyses of individual brine inclusions document high concentrations of Zn and Pb (∼1,500 and ∼200 ppm respectively) and identify the brine as responsible for the introduction of base metals. Stable isotope data were acquired for host rock and hydrothermal carbonates (dolomite, calcite) and sulphides (pyrite, sphalerite, galena and chalcopyrite). The ore-forming sulphides show a trend to ³⁴S enrichment from pyrite nodules in the pyritic rock matrix breccia (δ³⁴S = −9.9 to +3.7‰) to paragenetically late chalcopyrite of the main mineralisation event (δ³⁴S = +30.0‰). The observed trend is attributed to Rayleigh fractionation during the complete reduction of sulphate in a restricted reservoir by thermochemical sulphate reduction, and incremental precipitation of the generated sulphide. The initial sulphate reservoir is expected to have had an isotopic signature around 0‰, and may well represent magmatic sulphur, oxidised and leached by the metal-bearing brine. The δ¹⁸O values of successive generations of dolomite, from host dolostone to paragenetically late saddle dolomite follow a consistent trend that yields convincing evidence for extensive water rock interaction at variable fluid–rock ratios. Values of δ¹³C remain virtually unchanged and similar to the host dolostone, thus suggesting insignificant influx of CO₂ during the early and main stages of mineralisation. On the other hand, δ¹³C and δ¹⁸O of post-ore calcite define two distinct clusters that may be attributed to changes in the relative abundance in CH₄ and CO₂ during waning stages of hydrothermal fluid flow.     

Volcanic stratigraphy, structural controls, and mineralization in the san cristobal Ag–Zn–Pb deposit, southern bolivia

The Late Miocene San Cristobal Ag–Zn–Pb deposit represents syngenetic and epigenetic mineralization with low- and high-sulfidation characteristics. Rocks in the deposit are characterized by barren dacitic ring fracture domes, mineralized resurgent rhyodacite domes, strongly altered and mineralized tuffaceous lacustrine sedimentary rocks, and an extensive crystal-lithic tuff debris apron. The ore body is hosted by intracauldron sedimentary and volcanic rocks and genetically associated breccias. Fluid inclusion data suggest that silver, lead, and zinc were transported as chloride complexes and precipitated by cooling in veins from <5 wt.% NaCl eq. fluids at 170–215 °C. Silver that was spatially, and perhaps temporally, associated with an episode of rhyodacite resurgence may have been transported as a chloride complex and precipitated by increased H₂S activity or increased fluid pH. Although San Cristobal represents a major silver resource, the occurrence of stratiform wurtzite and sphalerite in cauldron-hosted sedimentary rocks represents a syngenetic component of mineralization that is very rare in continental caldera-associated epithermal deposits, which contributes to San Cristobal's significance as a zinc resource.     

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and Pb isotopic ratios in a sediment core from Shilianghe Reservoir,eastern China: Implying pollution sources

The history records of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), lead and its stable isotope ratios were determined in a sediment core to receive anthropogenic impacts on the Shilianghe Reservoir in eastern China. The historical changes of PAHs concentrations, PAHs fluxes, Pb/Al and Pb isotope ratios showed a synchronous trend throughout the core, suggesting changes in energy usage and correlating closely with the experience of a rapid economic and industrial development of the catchment, Linyi City in eastern China. PAHs isomer ratios results reveal PAHs in sediments are dominantly anthropogenic pyrogenic source, dominated by the combustion of coal and biomass. Furthermore, the Pb isotopic composition also clearly indicates that coal combustion dust mainly contributed to the Pb burden in the reservoir sediments. Based on mix end member model of Pb isotope ratios, coal combustion dust dominated anthropogenic Pb sources over fifty years contributing from 31% to 62% of total Pb in sediment. And the contribution of leaded gasoline was low than average 25%. In addition, a stable increase of coal combustion source was found in sediment core, while the contribution of leaded gasoline had declined in recent decades, with the phase-out of leaded gasoline in China.     

内蒙古鸡冠山斑岩型钼矿床S、Pb同位素组成:对成矿物质来源的指示

内蒙古鸡冠山钼矿床位于中亚-蒙古巨型造山带东段,是西拉沐沦钼金属成矿带中典型的大型斑岩型钼矿床。矿床产于燕山晚期火山侵入杂岩中,矿体与岩体关系密切,矿化类型以细脉浸染状斑岩型矿化为主。在野外地质观察的基础上,本文对矿石矿物黄铁矿、辉钼矿进行了S同位素组成分析,对矿床围岩全岩及黄铁矿单矿物进行了Pb同位素组成分析。结果表明,钼矿石δ~(34)S变化范围为4. 617‰～7. 072‰,平均值为5. 653‰,离散度小,硫化物δ~(34)S值全为正值,表明矿石中S源是均一的。辉钼矿δ~(34)S变化范围为4. 617‰～5. 351‰,平均值为4. 875‰。硫同位素比值5. 653‰具花岗质岩浆硫特征,推测其硫可能主要来源于下地壳岩浆源,并有一定量的地幔物质混入。全岩的~(206)Pb/~(204)Pb、~(207)Pb/~(204)Pb和~(208)Pb/~(204)Pb分别为17. 876～19. 618、15. 519～15. 609和38. 111～40. 408,表明鸡冠山钼矿床围岩的全岩铅同位素组成均变化较大。矿石矿物黄铁矿的~(206)Pb/~(204)Pb、~(207)Pb/~(204)Pb和~(208)Pb/~(20 4)Pb分别为17. 781～17. 830、15. 523～15. 526和38. 084～38. 102,表明矿石矿物铅同位素组成变化较小。围岩全岩和矿石硫化物的铅同位素投影点均落在造山带演化线的下方,表明铅很可能源于地幔或者下地壳。     

贵州普定纳雍枝铅锌矿矿床成因:S和原位Pb同位素证据

通过近五年(2011~2015)勘查实现找矿重大突破的贵州普定纳雍枝铅锌矿床,位于扬子陆块西南缘,五指山背斜南东翼北中部,是黔西北铅锌成矿区的重要组成部分。矿区内已发现20余个铅锌矿体,探获铅锌金属资源储量超135万吨,是川滇黔接壤铅锌矿集区贵州境内目前已发现和探明规模最大的铅锌矿床。主矿体多呈层状、似层状、透镜状和陡倾斜脉状产出,除了陡倾斜脉状矿体产于F7断层破碎带,其余(似)层状矿体均产于下寒武统清虚洞组和上震旦统灯影组白云岩中,与围岩产状一致,层控特征明显。其矿石类型主要有块状、角砾状、细脉状和浸染状等,矿石矿物以闪锌矿为主,其次为方铅矿和黄铁矿,脉石矿物以方解石、白云石为主,含少量石英,偶见重晶石。本次研究表明,该矿床硫化物δ~(34)S_(CDT)值介于15.94‰~25.49‰之间,均值为22.41‰(n=21),其中黄铁矿δ~(34)S_(CDT)值为22.06‰,闪锌矿δ~(34)S_(CDT)值为19.37‰~25.49‰,均值为23.17‰(n=17),方铅矿δ~(34)S_(CDT)值为15.94‰~19.70‰(n=3),均值为18.23‰。各类硫化物δ~(34)S值部分重叠,总体上不具有δ~(34)S黄铁矿δ~(34)S闪锌矿δ~(34)S方铅矿的特征,暗示硫同位素在硫化物矿物间的分馏未达到平衡。此外,矿石存有少量硫酸盐矿物(重晶石),暗示成矿流体的δ~(34)S3∑S值应高于硫化物的平均δ4S值(22.41‰),接近赋矿地层中海相硫酸盐岩的δ~(34)S值(22‰~28‰)。因此,成矿流体中的还原硫最可能为海相硫酸盐岩热化学还原的产物,来源于赋矿地层中的蒸发岩。应用飞秒激光剥蚀多接收器等离子体质谱法首次获得了纳雍枝铅锌矿中方铅矿原位Pb同位素数据,结果显示Pb同位素组成非常集中(~(206)Pb/204Pb=17.828~17.860,均值17.841,~(207)Pb/204Pb=15.648~15.666,均值15.659,~(208)Pb/204Pb=37.922~37.979,均值37.960,n=32),位于上地壳平均Pb演化曲线上,表明其成矿物质具壳源特征,可能来源于基底岩石。综合矿床地质、矿物学、S和原位Pb同位素数据,本文认为纳雍枝铅锌矿床S主要来源于其赋矿地层,Pb等金属元素主要来源于基底岩石,这两组流体的混合是导致其金属硫化物沉淀成矿的重要机制,成矿流体具后生、低温热液等特征,属于密西西比河谷型(MVT)矿床,很可能形成于燕山期,与右江盆地演化有关。     

云南德钦鲁春铜铅锌矿床硫铅氢氧同位素特征及地质意义

鲁春铜铅锌矿床位于中咱-中甸板块和昌都-思茅板块之间的金沙江构造带中部,矿体长约3 km,厚度在1.06～16.35 m之间。其赋矿围岩为火山沉积岩系,容矿构造为印支期逆断层。鲁春铜铅锌矿床矿石中硫化物的δ34S值变化于3.5‰～6.8‰之间,硫化物的206Pb/204Pb比值为18.554～18.656,207Pb/204Pb比值为15.662～15.752,208Pb/204Pb比值为38.801～39.009。石英流体包裹体的HO182δO值变化范围为2.74‰～1.25‰,δDV-SMOW变化范围为107‰～123‰。鲁春铜铅锌矿床的硫铅氢氧同位素分析结果表明,该矿床成矿物质来源于地幔,部分来源于岩浆,在成矿流体上升过程中,有壳源物质的加入。早二叠世晚期金沙江洋盆向西俯冲形成了一系列逆断层,同时导致下地壳部分熔融,引发大规模的火山岩浆作用。在晚三叠世早期,构造背景由挤压环境到伸展环境的转折期,这些逆断层具有张性的特点,为后期的成矿热液提供了有利的容矿构造。上升的岩浆为地幔楔内的成矿流体提供了通道。岩浆内的部分成矿流体进入白茫雪山花岗闪长岩体附近的逆断层富集成矿。     

Mineral assemblages of the Francisco I. Madero Zn–Cu–Pb–(Ag) deposit, Zacatecas, Mexico: Implications for ore deposit genesis

The Francisco I. Madero deposit, central Mexico, occurs in the Mesozoic Guerrero Terrane, which hosts many ore deposits, both Cretaceous (volcanogenic massive sulfides) and Tertiary (epithermal and skarn deposits). It is hosted by a 600 m-thick calcareous-pelitic unit, of Lower Cretaceous age, crosscut by porphyritic dikes that strike NW–SE. A thick felsic volcanic Tertiary sequence, consisting of andesites and rhyolitic ignimbrites, unconformably overlies the Cretaceous series. At the base, the mineralization consists of several mantos developed within calcareous beds. They are dominantly composed of sphalerite, pyrrhotite and pyrite with minor chalcopyrite, arsenopyrite and galena. At the top of the orebody, there are calcic skarns formed through prograde and retrograde stages. The resulting mineral assemblages are rich in manganoan hedenbergite (Hd_75–28Di_40–4Jh_40–20), andraditic garnets (Adr_100–62Grs_38–0), epidote (Ep_95–36Czo_60–5Pie_8–0), chamosite, calcite and quartz. The temperature of ore deposition, estimated by chlorite and arsenopyrite geothermometry, ranges from 243° to 277 °C and from 300° to 340 °C, respectively. The pressure estimated from sphalerite geobarometry averages 2.1 kbar. This value corresponds to a moderately deep skarn and agrees with the high Cu content of the deposit. Paragenesis, P–T conditions and geological characteristics are compatible with a distal, dike-related, Zn skarn deposit. Its style of mineralization is similar to that of many high-temperature carbonate replacement skarn deposits in the Southern Cordillera.