Building Damage and Casualties after an Earthquake

The relationship between building damage patterns and human casualties in Nishinomiya City – one of the most heavily damaged cities in the 1995 Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake Disaster – was investigated using photographs of damaged buildings. First, the photographs of buildings in which casualties occurred were identified, and the building damage patterns were judged based on the photographs considering the existence of survival space. Then the relationship between the building damage pattern and casualty occurrence, and the characteristics of casualty distribution, were investigated. The main findings were as follows: Most casualties occurred in relatively old two-story wooden buildings in which the ground floor completely collapsed without survival space; casualties occurred at all building damage levels including ``no damage', and it can be seen that building damage is the major, but not the sole cause, of casualties in an earthquake; in Nishinomiya City, the regional distributions of casualties due to the collapse of buildings that left no survival space is similar to that of casualties due to other types of building damage.     

Generation of stochastic earthquake ground motion in western Saudi Arabia as a first step in development of regional ground motion prediction model

Earthquake ground motion model is an essential part of seismic hazard assessment. The model consists in several empirical ground motion prediction equations (GMPEs) that are considered to be applicable to the given region. When the recorded ground motion data are scarce, numerical modeling of ground motion based on available seismological information is widely used. We describe results of stochastic simulation of ground motion acceleration records for western Saudi Arabia. The simulation was performed using the finite fault model and considering peak ground acceleration and amplitudes of spectral acceleration at natural frequencies 0.2 and 1.0 s. Based on the parameters of the input seismological model that were accepted in similar previous studies, we analyze influence of variations in the source factor (stress drop) and in the local attenuation and amplification factors (kappa value, crustal amplification). These characteristics of the model are considered as the major contributors to the ground motion variability. The results of our work show that distribution of simulated ground motion parameters versus magnitude and distance reveals an agreement with the GMPEs recently used in seismic hazard assessment for the region. Collection of credible information about seismic source, propagation path, and site attenuation parameters using the regional ground motion database would allow constraining the seismological model and developing regional GMPEs. The stochastic simulation based on regional seismological model may be applied for generation of ground motion time histories used for development of analytical fragility curves for typical constructions in the region.     

The Role of Earthquake-Related Effects in Urban Complexes

A number of cases where earthquake-induced damage was massive or presented interesting distribution patterns in recent earthquakes are presented.The highly serious damage along reactivated seismic faults and fractures is discussedfor the earthquakes of Pyrgos (Greece), Egio (Greece) and Kobe (Japan). Additionally, we describe characteristic types of building failure in the earthquake of Egio,caused by the coexistence of surficial faulting and liquefaction. Of particularinterest is the damage pattern in the Kobe and Dinar earthquakes, attributed to seismicwave directivity, caused by migration of the earthquake source. Finally, a specialcase of building damage is described for the case of the Adana, Turkey earthquake,which is connected to the shape and the azimuthal location of buildings in respectto the epicentre. All the above cases are valuable sources of information and can be utilizedin the reduction of seismic risk in constructions and urban complexes.     

Seismic damage assessment based on regional synthetic ground motion dataset: a case study for Erzincan,Turkey

Estimation of seismic losses is a fundamental step in risk mitigation in urban regions. Structural damage patterns depend on the regional seismic properties and the local building vulnerability. In this study, a framework for seismic damage estimation is proposed where the local building fragilities are modeled based on a set of simulated ground motions in the region of interest. For this purpose, first, ground motion records are simulated for a set of scenario events using stochastic finite-fault methodology. Then, existing building stock is classified into specific building types represented with equivalent single-degree-of-freedom models. The response statistics of these models are evaluated through nonlinear time history analysis with the simulated ground motions. Fragility curves for the classified structural types are derived and discussed. The study area is Erzincan (Turkey), which is located on a pull-apart basin underlain by soft sediments in the conjunction of three active faults as right-lateral North Anatolian Fault, left-lateral North East Anatolian Fault, and left-lateral Ovacik Fault. Erzincan city center experienced devastating earthquakes in the past including the December 27, 1939 (Ms = 8.0) and the March 13, 1992 (Mw?=?6.6) events. The application of the proposed method is performed to estimate the spatial distribution of the damage after the 1992 event. The estimated results are compared against the corresponding observed damage levels yielding a reasonable match in between. After the validation exercise, a potential scenario event of Mw?=?7.0 is simulated in the study region. The corresponding damage distribution indicates a significant risk within the urban area.     

液化与非液化场地加速度反应谱对比

通过对2011年新西兰发生的6.3级地震中获取的硬土场地、软土场地和液化场地强震记录实测资料进行分析,研究包括3种类型场地的地震动特征及其相互关系。分析的强震记录为震中距小于50 km,且峰值大于0.05g的23个场地上的加速度记录,其中含3个硬场地、11个软场地和9个液化场地。3种类型场地上的放大系数谱对比分析表明,硬土场地、软土场地和液化场地上的地震动特征具有明显区别,三者层次清晰,差别显著,从地震动表现上液化场地已构成一个与常规场地并列的独立单元;液化场地减少地震动高频分量但同时对低频分量显著放大,与非液化场地相比,液化场地可使其上短周期结构反应减小一半,但同时可使其上长周期结构反应放大2.5～5.0倍;土层的液化对此次地震中克莱斯特彻奇市中心CTV大楼的破坏应有很大影响,大楼自振周期约为0.7 s,地震中土层液化使场地加速度反应谱卓越周期由0.1～0.3 s增到0.5～1.0 s,与大楼的自振周期趋于吻合,加重了大楼震害。以此为鉴,按现有规范中地震动的设计方法,如遇液化场地将对长周期结构给出明显危险的结果,因此从振动角度今后进行结构抗震设计时,可液化场地上的地震动应给予特殊考虑。     

汶川地震远场黄土场地地震动场地放大效应机制研究

通过汶川地震震后科学考察发现,汶川地震局部场地的震害和地震动放大效应明显,地震对甘肃省境内远离震中的黄土地区造成了较为严重的破坏。在此基础上,结合钻孔波速测试,运用二维等价线性时程响应动分析法对甘肃省平凉市典型黄土塬进行了地震动力响应计算,分析了该地区局部场地条件对地震动放大效应的影响。研究发现,黄土塬具有地震动放大效应,随着塬高的增加,加速度、速度、位移均出现放大效应;随着地震动在黄土覆盖层中的传递,卓越频率向低频移动,高频成分被吸收,加速度反应谱中长周期分量逐渐增大。数值计算结果与实际震害基本吻合,其结果对黄土地区进行合理的抗震设防具有一定的科学意义。     

Estimation of the spatial distribution of ground motion parameters for two recent earthquakes in Japan

A recent development in strong motion instrumentation in Japan provides an opportunity to collect valuable data sets, especially after moderate and large magnitude events. Gathering and modeling these data is a necessity for better understanding of regional ground motion characteristics. Estimations of the spatial distribution of earthquake ground motion plays an important role in early-stage damage assessments for both rescue operations by disaster management agencies as well as damage studies of urban structures. Subsurface geology layers and local soil conditions lead to soil amplification that contributes to the estimated ground motion parameters of the surface. We present a case study of the applicability of the nationally proposed GIS-based soil amplification ratios [J. Soil Dyn. Earthqu. Eng. 19 (2000) 41–53] to the October 6, 2000 Tottori-ken Seibu (western Tottori Prefecture) and the March 24, 2001 Geiyo earthquakes in Japan. First, ground motion values were converted to those at a hypothetical ground base-rock level (outcrop) using an amplification ratio for each 1×1 km area, based on geomorphological and subsurface geology information. Then a Kriging method, assuming an attenuation relationship at the base-rock as a trend component, is applied. Finally, the spatial distribution of ground motion at ground surface is obtained by applying GIS-based amplification factors for the entire region. The correlation between the observed and estimated ground motion values is reasonable for both earthquakes. Thus, the proposed method is applicable in near real-time early-damage assessments and seismic hazard studies in Japan.     

Ground motion studies for microzonation in Iran

An important step in effectively reducing seismic risk and the vulnerability of a city located in an earthquake prone area is to conduct a ground motion microzonation study for the desired return period. The International Institute of Earthquake Engineering and Seismology (IIEES) initiated a number of seismic microzonation projects for Iran. This paper presents the steps followed by IIEES in ground motion microzonation. IIEES performs both probabilistic and deterministic seismic hazard analysis. IIEES uses his own fault map for seismotectonic studies and develops modulus and damping curves for the soils in the study area. The experience of ground motion microzonation shows that in almost all cases, the estimated 475-year peak ground acceleration (PGA) values are higher than the PGA proposed by the Iranian seismic code. Although ground motion microzonation in Iran has some shortcomings, IIEES is making new improvement. This includes development in deterministic seismic hazard analysis, two-dimensional and three-dimensional modelling of basin and topographical effects, using microtremor measurements to find shear-wave velocity profiles in high-density urban areas and providing maps for spectral acceleration in the study area.     

Site-specific earthquake response study for hazard assessment in Kolkata city,India

The assessment of local site effects on seismic ground motions is of great importance in earthquake engineering practice. Several destructive earthquakes in the past have demonstrated that the amplification of ground motion and associated damage to structures due to local site conditions is a significant consideration in earthquake hazard analysis. A recent paper published in this journal highlights the hazard posed by earthquakes in the megacity of Kolkata in India due to its seismic and geological settings. The seismic hazard assessment study speculates that the deep alluvial deposit in the city may increase the seismic hazard probably due to the amplification of the seismic energies. This paper focuses on the seismic response studies of the various soil strata (i.e. for local subsurface conditions) obtained from various construction sites in the city for predicted earthquake. It is very well recognized that site response studies (a part of seismic microhazard zonation for urban areas) are the first step towards performance-based foundation design or seismic risk analysis and mitigation strategy. One of the problems for carrying out site-specific study in Kolkata is the lack of recorded strong motion data in the city. Hence, this paper outlines a methodology to carry out site-specific study, where no strong motion data or seismic data are available. The methodology uses wavelet-based spectrum compatibility approach to generate synthetic earthquake motions and equivalent linear method for seismic site response analysis. The Mega City of Kolkata has been considered to explain the methodology. Seismic hazard zonation map by the Bureau of Indian Standards classifies the City of Kolkata as moderate seismic zone (Zone III) with a zone factor 0.16. On the other hand, GSHAP(Global Seismic Hazard Assessment Program) map which is based on 10% probability of exceedance in 50 years specifies a maximum peak ground acceleration (PGA) of 1.6 m/s² (0.163 g) for this region. In the present study, the seismic response has been carried out based on GSHAP. The results of the analysis indicate the amplification of ground motion in the range of 4.46–4.82 with the fundamental period ranging from 0.81 to 1.17 s. Furthermore, the maximum spectral accelerations vary in the range of 0.78–0.95 g.     

盾构扩挖地铁车站结构地震反应特性振动台试验

开展了近远场地震动作用下盾构扩挖地铁车站结构的振动台试验,分析了砂土模型地基的水平位移、地表变形、加速度、土压力反应及模型结构的加速度、应变等。结果表明：模型地基-结构体系的地震响应对中低频成分发育的地震波反应更为强烈;强震作用下地铁车站结构具有明显的空间效应,地下结构的存在将会改变模型地基表面变形的分布模式。小震时模型结构中柱的加速度反应自下而上逐渐增加,而大震时其反应规律变成先增大后减小;车站结构中板的加速度反应最大、底板次之、顶板最小;小震时,同等深度处模型结构的加速度反应与模型地基土的加速度反应大小相当,侧墙的动土压力自下而上逐渐增大;大震时,模型结构的加速度反应明显大于同深度处模型地基土的加速度反应,动土压力的最大值发生在扩挖隧道的拱肩和中间部位。基于震后模型结构的宏观现象和拉应变幅值,给出了砂土地基中盾构扩挖车站结构的地震损伤演化机制。     

近断层地震动对大型地下洞室群地震响应的影响研究

针对现行水工抗震规范中对近断层地震缺乏考虑这一实际问题,首先讨论了近断层、远场地震动的差别,对比了近断层、远场地震动对地下洞室地震响应的影响,继而提出一种新的人工合成近断层地震动时程的方法,并采用合成的近断层地震动时程对某水电站地下洞室群进行了近断层地震稳定性专门研究。结果表明：与常规地震分析中考虑的远场地震动相比,近断层脉冲型地震动的主要特征为Vmax/Amax和Dmax/Amax（Vmax、Dmax、Amax分别为速度峰值、位移峰值、加速度峰值）指标更大,且近断层脉冲型地震动的主要能量集中在1 Hz以下的频段;在相同峰值加速度幅值、相同反应谱的前提下,近断层地震动对高边墙、大跨度地下工程的破坏程度远比远场地震动大;较之前人的研究方法,文中提出的近断层脉冲型地震动合成方法考虑了[1/Tp, 1] Hz这一频段内的地震波信息,更具合理性;在设定的计算条件下,地下厂房洞室群有在近断层地震动作用下发生失稳的危险性,需要进一步针对近断层地震动进行专项风险性评价,以讨论是否需要增设针对性的抗震支护措施。     

A Multi-Parameter Correlation for Predicting the Seismic Displacement of an Earth Dam or Embankment

Predictive displacement-based methods provide a useful index of the seismic performance of earth dams and embankments and can be used in preliminary assessments of these structures. In practice, simplified Newmark-type sliding block methods are commonly used for this purpose. Using a database of 122 previously published case histories of permanent deformations of earth dams and embankments, the performance of six simplified sliding block models was examined. The results show that all six simplified methods underpredict seismic displacement for many of the embankment and earth dam cases that were examined, sometimes by a significant amount. An empirical correlation was developed by performing linear multiple regression analysis utilizing multiple slope and ground motion input parameters. This approach is believed to more properly reflect strong ground motion characteristics than the use of a single ground motion parameter such as the peak ground acceleration, the approach that has been previously employed in other correlations of this type. After exploring numerous functional forms, the final resulting seismic displacement correlation that was proposed was determined to be a function of the critical acceleration, the critical acceleration ratio, the slope height, the peak ground acceleration, the peak ground velocity, the spectral acceleration, and the predominant period of earthquake shaking. The proposed empirical equation yields better correlation with the case history database than does other existing empirical correlations or simplified sliding block models.     

脉冲地震动中竖向加速度对场地液化的影响

为研究近断层脉冲地震动中竖向加速度对砂土场地液化的影响,基于有限元平台OpenSees开发的边界面塑性本构模型,建立了动单剪单元试验模型和饱和砂土三维有限元模型。选取台湾Chi-Chi地震中10条具有速度脉冲特性的地震波,对比分析了水平双向脉冲波与三向脉冲波作用下土柱竖向位移、循环应力比、孔压比及等效循环周数的差异性,继而明确了脉冲地震动中竖向加速度对砂土液化的影响规律。研究表明,三向脉冲地震波中竖向加速度分量对场地永久位移值影响较小,但使永久位移的发展持时明显增大;土柱循环应力比受竖向地震动影响较小,因此分析脉冲地震动对场地剪切特性的影响时,可将三向脉冲地震动简化为水平双向地震动;考虑竖向地震动的三向脉冲地震波引起的孔压比变化幅度较大,孔压消散时间较长;三向脉冲地震波对应的等效循环周数较大,地震动发展持时长,可认为竖向加速度对场地液化有促进作用。     

A performance-based framework for assessing liquefaction potential based on CPT data

This article describes a new performance-based approach for evaluating the return period of seismic soil liquefaction based on standard penetration test (SPT) and cone penetration test (CPT) data. The conventional liquefaction evaluation methods consider a single acceleration level and magnitude and these approaches fail to take into account the uncertainty in earthquake loading. The seismic hazard analysis based on the probabilistic method clearly shows that a particular acceleration value is being contributed by different magnitudes with varying probability. In the new method presented in this article, the entire range of ground shaking and the entire range of earthquake magnitude are considered and the liquefaction return period is evaluated based on the SPT and CPT data. This article explains the performance-based methodology for the liquefaction analysis – starting from probabilistic seismic hazard analysis (PSHA) for the evaluation of seismic hazard and the performance-based method to evaluate the liquefaction return period. A case study has been done for Bangalore, India, based on SPT data and converted CPT values. The comparison of results obtained from both the methods have been presented. In an area of 220 km² in Bangalore city, the site class was assessed based on large number of borehole data and 58 Multi-channel analysis of surface wave survey. Using the site class and peak acceleration at rock depth from PSHA, the peak ground acceleration at the ground surface was estimated using probabilistic approach. The liquefaction analysis was done based on 450 borehole data obtained in the study area. The results of CPT match well with the results obtained from similar analysis with SPT data.     

Analysis of soil effects and distribution of damage from the Pyrgos 1993 (Greece) earthquake

Summary On 26 March, 1993, a moderate magnitude earthquake (M _s=5.5) occurred at 3 km epicentral distance from the town of Pyrgos, in Southern Greece, causing extensive damage to masonry houses. To explain the variability of seismic intensity over the town and to propose measures against future seismic activity, a microzonation study was undertaken which combined geological, geophysical and geotechnical investigations, site specific analyses of seismic ground response and detailed recording of structural damage. The analytical predictions of ground response are correlated to soil conditions and then used to identify (micro-)zones of sites with similar seismic response. Furthermore, they are compared to quantitative estimates of damage distribution over the town. It is concluded that the peak ground acceleration, normalized against the input peak seismic acceleration, is a function of the local soil conditions as well as the seismic excitation characteristics. Hence, it cannot be defined uniquely at a site, without reference to the seismic excitation. However, the normalized peak ground velocity and the acceleration response spectra are mainly functions of the soil conditions and can be used as criteria for the practical definition of (micro-)zones. The distribution of damage in various parts of the town is at least partially attributable to local soil effects. The small epicentral distance of the earthquake, connected with the direction of the fault rupture, as well as the quality and techniques of construction, are additional factors that may have influenced the extent and distribution of damage.     

苏州第四纪深厚沉积层一维等效线性和非线性地震反应对比分析

合理描述土体动力本构关系对场地设计地震动参数取值的准确性有显著影响。以苏州城区200 m深的钻孔剖面为研究对象,对比分析了一维等效线性波传分析法（ELA法）和基于修正Matasovic本构模型的多自由度集中质量非线性分析法（NLA法）给出的深厚场地地震反应,研究了基岩输入地震动特性和地震基岩面的选取对深厚场地地震反应的影响。结果表明：（1）随基岩地震动强度（PGA）的增大,ELA法给出的地表PGA呈单调递增的特征,而NLA法给出的地表PGA呈先快速增大后缓慢减小或几乎不变的趋势;（2）ELA法和NLA法给出的地表加速度反应谱（Sa谱）在短周期范围内存在明显差异,ELA法对基岩高频地震动具有显著的滤波效应,而NLA法对基岩高频地震动的影响表现为随基岩PGA的增大先放大后减小的特征;（3）随地震基岩面深度的增大,地表Sa谱的谱值呈现出稍许增大的趋势,但对周期T<0.1 s部分,NLA法给出的地表Sa谱的谱值则呈现出稍许减小的现象;（4）中、大震作用下,地表地震动持时不仅与基岩地震动特性有关,还与地震反应分析方法和地震基岩面的选取密切相关,NLA法能更合理地反映基岩地震动强度和上覆土层厚度对地表地震动持时的影响。     

Seismic hazard evaluation at Algiers using Benouar's earthquake catalogue

This paper presents the evaluation of seismic hazard at the site of Algiers (capital of Algeria). In order to implement earthquake-resistant design codes, it is usually necessary to know the maximum dynamic load which a particular structure might experience during its economic life, or alternatively, the most probable return period of a specified design load. The evaluation of the seismic hazard at the site, based on peak ground motion acceleration and using Cornell's method and Benouar's earthquake Maghreb catalogue, in terms of return period, probability of exceedance of PGA, design ground motion and a response spectrum, is carried out for the City of Algiers and its surroundings. The response spectrum for Algiers presented in this paper is the first one realized in Algeria using revised Algerian data.     

Simulation of large earthquakes and its implications on earthquake insurance rates: a case study in Bursa region (Turkey)

Ground motion intensity parameters of past and potential earthquakes are required for a range of purposes including earthquake insurance practice. In regions with no or sparse earthquake recordings, most of the available methods generate only peak ground motion parameters. For cases where full ground motion time histories are required, simulations that consider fault rupture processes become necessary. In this study, a major novel use of simulated ground motions is presented in insurance premium calculations which also require ground motion intensity measures that are not always available through observations. For this purpose, potential earthquakes in Bursa are simulated using stochastic finite-fault simulation method with dynamic corner frequency model. To ensure simulations with reliable synthetic ground motions, input parameters are derived from regional data. Regional model parameters are verified by comparisons against the observations as well as ground motion prediction equations. Next, a potential large magnitude event in Bursa is simulated. Distribution of peak ground motion parameters and time histories at selected locations are obtained. From these parameters, the corresponding Modified Mercalli Intensities (MMI) are estimated. Later, these MMIs are used as the main ground motion parameter in damage probability matrices (DPM). Return period of the scenario earthquake is obtained from the previous regional seismic hazard studies. Finally, insurance rates for Bursa region are determined with implementation of two new approaches in the literature. The probability of the scenario event and the expected mean damage ratios (MDR) from the corresponding DPMs are used, and the results are compared to Turkish Catastrophe Insurance Pool (TCIP) rates. Results show that insurance premiums can be effectively computed using simulated ground motions in the absence of real data.     

香港地区地震风险评价和设防区划

香港地区隶属于中国板内地震区中的东南沿海块缘地震带。港-九块体为晚中生代至早第三纪以来以持续稳定上升为主的块体, 块体活动性明显地低于其周边相对下沉的中新生代盆地。为此, 赋予港-九块体为最大可信震级M=5.5级潜在震源区, 而其周边中新生代断陷盆地则为最大可信震级M6.0潜在震源。从大陆地震构造成因的环境、潜在震源可信震级范围M=5.0～7.5和近源地震动饱和等三个方面的可比性, 结合中国大陆地震震源破裂尺度和地震烈度影响场, 所建立的反映中国地震构造和震源破裂及地震烈度影响场特点的PGA和反应谱地震动衰减预测关系式可用于香港地区。以50%概率时的中值对中国强震记录的对比, 本研究所提供的经验期望预测关系式, 能包络实际的资料。因此, 用此地震动衰减预测模式对香港地区地震危险性进行评估, 将会得到相对保守地震动预测值。通过香港地区基岩地震动危险性分析和计算, 参照中国大陆地震设防标准, 进行了基岩设计参数确定和区划。以年概率P=0.02、P=0.002、P=0.0004三个概率标准, 对应的地震动重复周期大约分别约为50a, 500a, 2500a的基岩PGA和反应谱, 作为香港地区基岩上构筑物和建筑物可选的基     

Deterministic seismic hazard assessment for Sultanate of Oman

The Sultanate of Oman forms the southeastern part of the Arabian plate, which is surrounded by relatively high active tectonic zones. Studies of seismic risk assessment in Oman have been an important on-going socioeconomic concern. Using the results of the seismic hazard assessment to improve building design and construction is an effective way to reduce the seismic risk. In the current study, seismic hazard assessment for the Sultanate of Oman is performed through the deterministic approach with particular attention on the uncertainty analysis applying a recently developed method. The input data set contains a defined seismotectonic model consisting of 26 seismic zones, maximum magnitudes, and 6 alternative ground motion prediction equations that were used in four different tectonic environments: obduction zone earthquake (Zagros fold thrust belt), subduction zone earthquakes (Makran subduction zones), normal and strike-slip transform earthquakes (Owen and Gulf of Aden zones), and stable craton seismicity (Arabian stable craton). This input data set yielded a total of 76 scenarios at each point of interest. A 10 % probability that any of the 76 scenarios may exceed the largest median ground acceleration is selected. The deterministic seismic hazards in terms of PGA, 5 % damped spectral acceleration at 0.1, 0.2, 1.0 and 2.0 s are performed at 254 selected points. The ground motion was calculated at the 50th and 84th percentile levels for selected probability of exceeding the median value. The largest ground motion in the Sultanate of Oman is observed in the northeastern part of the country.