Influence of pH on the Toxicity of Phenol and its Two Derivatives Pentachlorophenol and Dinitrophenol to Some Fresh Water Teleosts

— The fish Colisa fasciatus, Saccobranchus fossilis and Notopterus notopterus were exposed to phenol, pentachlorophenol and dinitrophenol at four pH levels, i. e. 4.6 + 0.12, 6.0±0.14, 7.3 ±0.10 and 8.8 ±0.13, to evaluate the effect of pH on the toxicity of these chemicals. — A change in pH from 7.3 ± 0.10 to 6.0 ± 0.14 increased toxicity to a certain degree while a change from 7.3 ± 0.10 to 4.6 ± 0.12 potentiated the toxicity of phenol, pentachlorophenol and dinitrophenol 5.05, 19.30 and 22.33 times, respectively for Notopterus notopterus, 3.59, 4.39 and 4.73 times, tespectively for Colisa fasciatus and 3.04, 4.68 and 5.85 times, respectively for Saccobranchus fossilis. — A change in pH from 7.3 ± 0.10 to 8.8 ± 0.13 has a protective effect on the toxicities.     

Alterations in Certain Organic Components and Serum Electrolytes in Notopterus notopterus Chronically Exposed to Phenolic Compounds

• The present investigation was undertaken to evaluate the effects of three sublethal concentrations (1/10th, 1/15th and 1/20th fractions of 96 h LC₅₀) of phenol (P), dinitrophenol (DNP), pentachlorophenol (PCP) and their antagonistic [(PCP + DNP)/P], additive [(DNP + P)/PCP] and synergistic [(P + DNP)/PCP] combinations, on several organic and inorganic components of haemopoetic systems of Notopterus notopterus after 30 d of exposure.
• Glucose, lactate, total phosphorus, non-protein nitrogen, sodium, potassium, magnesium, calcium, iron and chloride were found to be increased in most cases while protein and cholesterol were found to be decreased.
• It has been concluded that these alterations in blood parameters might be due to a damage or hyperactivity of liver, kidney and endocrine glands, the main centres for controlling the tissue metabolism.

     

Evaluation of the Relative Resistance of Twelve Species of Fish in Toxicity Bioassays with Electroplating Waste

The present paper deals with the evaluation of the relative resistance of 12 species of fish in static toxicity bioassay tests of electroplating waste. The electroplating waste is highly toxic as it contains several toxic metals like copper, nickel, cadmium, zinc, lead and chromium alongwith cyanides, acids and alkalies. On the basis of TL₅₀, the fish Clarias batrachus ist the most resistant fish and Labeo rohita the most sensitive. The relative resistance of the fish is in the decreasing order: Clarias batrachus, Saccobranchus fossilis, Ophiocephalus gachua, Ophiocephalus punctatus, Puntius stigma, Puntius sophore, Mystus vittatus, Cyprinus carpio, Colisa fasciatus, Notopterus notopterus, Cirrhina mrigala and Labeo rohita.     

Studies on the Pollution of the Kalinadi by Industrial Wastes near Mansurpur Part 2: Biological Index of Pollution and Biological Characteristics of the River

From the biological data presented here it is difficult to define any species of fish as an indicator of pollution in the strict sense. Nevertheless, the following generalizations are possible.

• - Species as Wallago attu, Clarias batrachus, Heteropneustes fossilis, Ophiocephalus striatus and Oph. punctatus occur in good number in the polluted stretch and seem to be tolerant species.
• - The species as Esomus danrica, Labeo rohita, Labeo gonius, L. bata, Catla catla, Cirrhina mrigala, Barbus chagunio, Barbus spec., Notopterus notopterus and Mugil corsula are most sensitive and disappear first in the polluted stretch.
• - The species as Barilius bola, B. bendelisis, Nemacheilus latius, Notopterus chitala, Collichrous bimaculatus, and Nandus nandus are moderately sensitive.
• - It appears that the main damage is caused to carp and feather-back fishes. The whole stretch of heavy pollution is almost devoid of carp and featherback.

The following important conclusions can be drawn from the distribution of plankton and bottom organisms:

• - The higher number of protozoans, chironomids, maggots and the decrease in the number of mollusca can be considered as the indicator of pollution, because of their abundance in polluted zones.
• - Chlorella, Lyngbya, Gyrosigma and Euglena (algae), Viviparius (mollusc) and Bosmina (crustacea) are very sensitive to pollution.
• - Oscillatoria, Pandorina, Anabaena, Nitzschia, Closterium (algae), Branchionus, Rotatoria (rotifers) and Naidium (annelid) are moderately sensitive.
• - Synedra, Spirogyra, Desmidium, Rivularia, Navicula, Fragillaria Phacus, Arcella and Vorticella are fairly tolerant forms.
• The stretch studied has been subdivided into five zones with characteristic features:
• - The Oligosaprobic Zone - characterized by a sufficient oxygen saturation, low B. O. D. and C. O. D., with a good fauna and flora.
• - The Polysaprobic Zone - with low oxygen saturation, high B. O. D. and C. O. D. and hydrogen sulphides with a restricted fauna and flora.
• - The α-Mesosaprobic zone - with moderate oxygen saturation, moderate B. O. D. and C. O. D. traces of hydrogen sulphide with the improvement of the fauna and flora.
• - The β-Mesosaprobic Zone - with fair oxygen saturation, low B. O. D. and C. O. D., with the reappearence of fauna and flora.
• - The Oligosaprobic Zone - similar to the zone of low pollution in all characteristics.

     

Toxicity of Nickel to a Fresh Water Teleost,Colisa fasciatus

The acute toxicity of nickel sulphate to Colisa fasciatus has been evaluated by static bioassay experiments. The LC 50 values of nickel for 24, 48, 72 and 96 h were computed to be 96.12, 60.18, 24.45 and 16.72 mg/1, respectively. Their 95 % confidence limits have also been investigated.     

A MAN/COMPUTER INTERPRETATION SYSTEM FOR RESISTIVITY SOUNDINGS OVER A HORIZONTALLY STRAFIFIED EARTH*

The proposed system works as follows:

• 1 By a trial-and-error procedure using a graphic display terminal a geologically relevant layer sequence with parameters (ρ_j, d_j) is adjusted to yield roughly the measured curve.
• 2 The resulting layer sequence is used as starting model for an iterative least squares procedure with singular value decomposition. Minimization of the sum of the squares of the logarithmic differences between measured and calculated values with respect to the logarithms of the resistivities and thicknesses as parameters linearizes the problem to a great extent, with two important implications:

• a) a considerable increase in speed (the number of iterations goes down), thus making it cheap to achieve the optimum solution;
• b) the confidence surfaces in parameter space are well approximated by the hyper-ellipsoids defined by the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the normal equations.

Since these are known from the singular value decomposition we do in fact know all possible solutions compatible with the measured curve and the geological concept.

• 3 It is possible to “freeze” any combination of parameters at predetermined values. Thus extra knowledge and/or hypotheses are easily incorporated and can be tested by rerunning step (2). The overall computing time for a practical case is of the order of 10 sec on a CDC 6400.

     

IMPEDANCE OF A PLANE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE AT THE SURFACE OF A LAYERED CONDUCTING EARTH WITH DIPPING ANISOTROPY*

The problem of a plane wave incident on a non-isotropic dipping layer lying over an isotropic conducting substratum has been studied and some numerical results are presented to show the effects of

• 1) degree of anisotropy m,
• 2) conductivity contrast between the substratum to the upper layer b,
• 3) angle of inclination of the axis of anisotropy α,

on the variation of amplitude and phase difference of the wave impedance with the normalized skin-depth (d/δ₁).     

Biocides in Relation to Water Pollution Part I: Bioassay Studies on the Effects of a few Biocides on Fresh Water Fish,Channa gachua

• - In the present paper the toxicity of four biocides, endrin, thiodon, malathion and phosvel, has been measured by performing static bioassay experiments with Channa gachua as test fish to establish the median Tolerance Limits (TL_m and TL₅₀).
• - The results of bioassay experiments indicate that the fish is harmed even at a very low concentration of these biocides. The values of TL_m are 0.0076, 0.0073, 0.00695 and 0.0068 for endrin; 0.01120, 0.01088, 0.01069 and 0.01064 for thiodon; 9.20, 8.10, 7.90 and 7.60 for malathion and 32.90, 32.10, 31.65 and 31.15 mg/l for phosvel for the time interval of 24, 48, 76 and 96 hours, respectively.
• - As indicated by TL_m's, endrin is most toxic and phosvel least. Thiodon and malathion came in a descending order between endrin and phosvel.
• - During bioassay studies, the effect of some variables, like temerature, pH and fish-size, on TL_m's has also been observed. They gave the following results.
• a) An increase in temperature increased the toxicity of all the biocides.
• b) An increase in pH decreased the TL_m as such, making the biocides more toxic to Channa gachua.
• c) For larger fishes, the biocide solutions were less toxic, but the same solutions were more toxic to fishes of a smaller size.
• - The safe harmless concentrations of endrin, thiodon, malathion and phosvel are - 0.00289 mg/l, 0.00337 mg/l, 1.88365 mg/l and 9.16736 mg/l, respectively.

     

EIN AUTOMATISCHES VERFAHREN ZUR INTERPRETATION MAGNETISCHER ANOMALIEN NACH DER METHODE DER KLEINSTEN QUADRATE*

The interpretation of magnetic anomalies on the basis of model bodies is preferably done by making use of “trial and error” methods. These manual methods are tedious and time consuming but they can be transferred to the computer by making the required adjustments by way of the method of least squares. The general principles of the method are described. Essential presumptions are the following:

• 1 the assumption of definite model bodies
• 2 the existence of approximation values of the unknown quantities (position, dip, magnetization, etc.)
• 3 a sufficiently large number of measuring values, so that the process of adjustment can be carried out.

The advantages of the method are the following:

• 1 substantial automatization and a quick procedure by using computers
• 2 determination of the errors of the unknown quantities.

The method was applied to the interpretation of two-dimensional ΔZ- and ΔT-anomalies. Three types of model bodies are taken as basis of the computer program, viz. the thin dyke, infinite resp. finite in its extension downward and the circular cylinder. Only the measuring values are given to the computer. The interpretation proceeds in the following steps:

• 1 calculation of approximation values
• 2 determination of the model body of best fit
• 3 iteration in the case of the model body of best fit.

The computer produces the end values of the unknown quantities, their mean errors, and the pertaining theoretical anomalies. These end results are given to a plotting machine, which draws the measured curve, the theoretical curve and the model bodies. Interpretation examples are given.     

Studies on the Effects of Acidic Medium on the Fry of Cyprinus carpio

The effects of acidic medium on the fry of Cyprinus carpio have been studied. The eggs of Cyprinus carpio were obtained from the Bilawali Fish Farm, Indore M.P. in July 1976. The eggs were put in various concentrations of HCl ranging from 0.0025 ppm to 0.0500 ppm. One specimen from each experimental group was sacrificed for histological studies every week. The microtomy sections were studied under high power. It was found that when the fries were kept in acidic medium following changes took place:

• - Nucleus became inconspicuous and cell wall became disorganised;
• - muscle layers of gut wall became indistinct and disorganised to some extent;
• - epithelial lining of the gut was partially destroyed.
• - vacuolation in the connective tissue of gut was seen due to destruction of some of the cells;
• - hepatic cells of the liver were destroyed at various spots to a varying degree.

Comparative study of results showed that the percentage of hatching is inversely proportional to the strength of pollutant (HCl) (Tab. 1). Table 1 shows that the LD-50 period of fries is inversely related to the strength of HCl in ppm and that the maximum number of fries overturned on the 6th or 7th day of the experiments. Statistical analysis of results indicates that the correlation coefficient between strength of pollutant and LD-50 period is ?0.877. It means that by increasing the strength of the HCl the survival period of fries decreased. Even at 0.0025 ppm (lowest concentration) HCl is toxic to the fries of Cyprinus carpio.     

THE USE OF SEISMIC SHEAR WAVES AND COMPRESSIONAL WAVES FOR LITHOLOGICAL PROBLEMS OF SHALLOW SEDIMENTS*

From a great variety of in situ shear wave experiments, i.e., reflection, refraction and borehole surveys in the shallow sediments of the north German plains, several specific properties have been derived. Shear waves (S) differ from compressional waves (P) in that:

• 1 they are not affected by the degree of water saturation. Thus, they provide a better correlation between the velocity V_s and (solid) lithology;
• 2 they generally have lower frequencies, but shorter wavelength and, hence, a better resolution of thin layers;
• 3 they have lower absorption Q_s^?1 and hence a better penetration in partially saturated and gas-containing sediments than P-waves.

Correlations have been established between V_s and the confining pressure and between reduced V_s values and several lithological parameters like the grain size of sandy material. More lithological and hydrological information is obtained by using S- and P-wave surveys along the same profile. The best information on a sedimentological structure is obtained by the simultaneous observation of V_s, V_p, Q_s and Q_p.     

Studies on the Toxicity of Some Insecticides to a Freshwater Teleost Lebistes reticulatus (PETERS)

In batch tests with daily exchange of the medium the toxicity of endosulfan, lindane, aldrin, chlordane, rogor and novocron is investigated during times of exposure of 12… 96 h. The mean survival periods and the LC₅₀ are determined. Toxicity increases in the following sequence (LC_50,96h) (in mg/1): novocron (22.65), rogor (18.97), chlordane (0.341), aldrin (0.017), lindane (0.0160), endosulfan (0.0027). The following safe concentrations in mg/1 are recommended: 0.0006 endosulfan, 0.0041 lindane, 0.0010 aldrin, 0.1436 chlordane, 5.4086 rogor and 7.2309 novocron.     

DEVELOPMENT OF MORE EFFICIENT AIRGUN ARRAYS: THEORY AND EXPERIMENT*

Source strength of an airgun array may be increased by:

• — utilizing higher pressure,
• — increasing total array volume,
• — employing more guns,
• — improving gun efficiency.

One measure of gun efficiency is “specific source strength”, P_a*, defined as source strength per unit quantity of air used. Typical units are MPa m/l. Most developments are directed toward increasing gun pressure and/or gun volume to increase source strength of the array. These efforts require that more air compressors be installed onboard the ship. Consequently, a larger ship may be needed for the additional compressors, guns, and auxiliary equipment. A development program was initiated in 1976 to increase source strength of the array without using a larger ship. New guns were designed and built—one for 41.4 MPa and 7.37 liter (6000 p.s.i./450 in³) operation and another with 13.8 MPa and 4.92 liter (2000 p.s.i./300 in³) capability. Experiments were conducted with these new guns (and existing guns) over a range of pressures from 13.8 to 41.4 MPa (2000 to 6000 p.s.i.). Design of the new guns was aided by a mathematical model. The model relates physical dimensions of the airgun to acoustic pressure in the water. It consists of four nonlinear differential equations relating

• — shuttle motion,
• — bubble pressure,
• — chamber pressure,
• — bubble radius.

The last equation is the “free-bubble-oscillation equation” and represents the ideal case of a pressurized bubble released instantaneously in water. The three other equations modify this ideal case; the four equations together model an airgun of the type manufactured by Bolt Associates, Inc.     

Toxic Impact of Hexavalent Chromium on the BLOOD Pyruvate of Colisa fasciatus

The blood pyruvate levels of a freshwater tropical teleost Colisa fasciatus were investigated from 3 to 96 h following sublethal intoxication of 48 ppm hexavalent chromium. The blood pyruvate levels rose at every time period studied from 3… 96 h. A statistically significant elevation is observed from 24 h and progresses up to 96 h. The maximum elevation of 92.86% has been recorded at 72 h (p<0.001).     

Impairments Induced by Sublethal Doses of Sevin and Thiodan on the Brain of a Freshwater Teleost Channa striatus BL. (Channidae)

Prolonged exposure to two pesticides Sevin and Thiodan for 30 days produced impairments in the brain of Channa striatus on the following ways:

• – Separation and damage to meninges of cerebral hemispheres
• – severe damage to all the five layers of the optic textum
• – severe damage to torus longitudinalis
• – partial damage to the molecular and grannular layers of the corpus cerebelli.
• – no effect on diencephalon and myelencephalon.

     

Comment on ‘Aspects of 1D seismic modelling using the Goupillaud principle’ by Evert Slob and Anton Ziolkowski1

The paper by Slob and Ziolkowski (1993) is apparently a comment on my paper (Szaraniec 1984) on odd-depth structure. In fact the basic understanding of a seismogram is in question. The fundamental equation for an odd-depth model and its subsequent deconvolution is correct with no additional geological constraints. This is the essence of my reply which is contained in the following points.

• 1 The discussion by Slob and Ziolkowski suffers from incoherence. On page 142 the Goupillaud (1961) paper is quoted: “… we must use a sampling rate at least double that… minimum interval…”. In the following analysis of such a postulated model Slob and Ziolkowski say that “… two constants are used in the model: Δt as sampling rate and 2Δt as two-way traveltime”. By reversing the Goupillaud postulation all the subsequent criticism becomes unreliable for the real Goupillaud postulation as well as the odd-depth model.
• 2 Slob and Ziolkowski take into consideration what they call the total impulse response. This is over and above the demands of the fundamental property of an odd-depth model. Following a similar approach I take truncated data in the form of a source function, S(z), convolved with a synthetic seismogram (earth impulse response), R?(z), the free surface being included. The problem of data modelling is a crucial one and will be discussed in more detail below. By my reasoning, however, the function may be considered as a mathematical construction introduced purely to work out the fundamental property. In this connection there is no question of this construction having a physical meaning. It is implicit that in terms of system theory, K(z) stands for what is known as input impedance.
• 3 Our understandings of data are divergent but Slob and Ziolkowski state erroneously that: “Szaraniec (1984) gives (21) as the total impulse response…”. This point was not made. This inappropriate statement is repeated and echoed throughout the paper making the discussion by Slob and Ziolkowski, as well as the corrections proposed in their Appendix A, ineffective. Thus, my equation (2) is quoted in the form which is in terms of the reflection response G^sc and holds true at least in mathematical terms. No wonder that “this identity is not valid for the total impulse response” (sic), which is denoted as G(z). None the less a substitution of G for G^sc is made in Appendix A, equation (A3). The equation numbers in my paper and in Appendix A are irrelevant, but (A3) is substituted for (32) (both numbers of equations from the authors’ paper). Afterwards, the mathematical incorrectness of the resulting equation is proved (which was already evident) and the final result (A16) is quite obviously different from my equation (2). However, the substitution in question is not my invention.
• 4 With regard to the problem of data modelling, I consider a bi-directional ID seismic source located just below the earth's surface. The downgoing unit impulse response is accompanied by a reflected upgoing unit impulse and the earth response is now doubled. The total impulse response for this model is thus given by where (—r₀) =— 1 stands for the surface reflection coefficient in an upward direction. Thus that is to say, the total response to a unit excitation is identical with the input impedance as it must be in system theory. The one-directional 1D seismic source model is in question. There must be a reaction to every action. When only the downgoing unit impulse of energy is considered, what about the compensation?
• 5 In more realistic modelling, an early part of a total seismogram is unknown (absent) and the seismogram is seen in segments or through the windows. That is why in the usual approach, especially in dynamic deconvolution problems, synthetic data in the presence of the free surface are considered as an equivalent of the global reflection coefficient. It is implicit that model arises from a truncated total seismogram represented as a source function convolved with a truncated global reflection coefficient.

Validation or invalidation of the truncation procedure for a numerically specified model may be attempted in the frame of the odd-depth assumption. My equations (22) and (23) have been designed for investigating the absence or presence of truncated energy. The odd-depth formalism allows the possibility of reconstructing an earlier part of a seismogram (Szaraniec 1984), that is to say, a numerical recovery of unknown moments which are unlikely designed by Slob and Ziolkowski for the data.     

Antiplane dynamic soil-bridge interaction for incident plane SH-waves

The analysis of dynamic soil-bridge interaction has been performed in three steps. These are:

• 1. The analysis of input motions.
• 2. The force-displacement relationships for the foundations.
• 3. The dynamic analysis of the structure itself, i.e. the bridge.

Based on the exact solution of the first two steps, the dynamic interaction of a simple two-dimensional bridge model erected on an elastic half-space has been investigated for a single span case. The two-dimensional model under study consists of an elastic shear girder bridge supported by two rigid abutments and rigid foundations which have a circular cross-section and are welded to the half-space. It has been shown that the dynamic interaction depends on:

• 1. The incidence angle of plane SH-waves.
• 2. The ratio of the rigidity of the girder and the soil.
• 3. The ratio of the girder mass to the mass of the rigid abutment-foundation system.
• 4. The span of the bridge.

The dynamic response of the girder and the effect of the radiative damping in the half-space on the interaction of the girder have been studied.     

Phylogenetic systematics of chelonioid sea turtles

Abstract Chelonioid sea turtles (Order Testudinata; Superfamily Chelonioidea) first appear in the early Cretaceous (Aptian-Albian). Their long fossil record is excellent compared to most marine tetrapods. Nonetheless, there has been no inclusive attempt to provide an analysis of cladistic relationships among this group. In this paper, the following chelonioid classification is proposed, based on 76 characters among 20 fossil and six living well- represented genera:

• 1 Family Cheloniidae (Coniacian to Recent); Toxochelys, Ctenochelys, Osteopygis, Erquelinnesia, Allopleuron, Argillochelys, Puppigerus, Eochelone, Syllomus, Natator, Eretmochelys, Chelonia, Caretta, Lepidochelys
• 2 Family Protostegidae (Aptian to Maastrichtian?); ‘Santana new protostegid’,Rhinochelys, Notochelone, Desmatochelys, Chelosphargis, Protostega, Archelon
• 3 Family Dermochelyidae (Santonian? to Recent); Corsochelys, ‘HMG new dermo-chelyid’, Eosphargis, Psephophorus, Dermochelys.

     

GEOPHYSICAL ANOMALY INTERPRETATION OF POTENTIAL FIELDS BY MEANS OF SINGULAR POINTS METHOD AND FILTERING*

The calculation of potential field anomalies on different levels below the measuring level permits to localize the singular points related to the sources of anomalies. It is possible to achieve considerable improvement of the resolution of this method

• 1) filtering of analytical downward continuation,
• 2) the use of the magnitude of the gravitational vector,
• 3) calculation of physe changes.

The numerical examples confirm these assumptions.     

Rock physics analysis for time-lapse seismic at Schiehallion Field, North Sea

Rock physics analysis plays a vital role in time‐lapse seismic interpretation because it provides the link between changes in rock and fluid properties and the resulting seismic data response. In this case study of the Schiehallion Field, we discuss a number of issues that commonly arise in rock physics analyses for time‐lapse studies. We show that:

• 1 Logarithmic fits of dry bulk (K_dry) and shear (G_dry) moduli vs. effective pressure (P_eff) are superior to polynomial fits.
• 2 2D surface fits of K_dry and G_dry over porosity (φ) and effective pressure using all the core data simultaneously are more useful and accurate than separate 1D fits over φ and P_eff for each individual core.
• 3 One average set (facies) of K_dry(φ, P_eff) and G_dry(φ, P_eff) can be chosen to represent adequately the entire Schiehallion reservoir.
• 4 Saturated velocities and densities modelled by fluid substitution of K_dry(φ, P_eff), G_dry(φ, P_eff) and the dry bulk density ρ_dry(φ) compare favourably with well‐log velocities and densities.
• 5 P‐ and S‐wave impedance values resulting from fluid substitution of K_dry(φ, P_eff), G_dry(φ, P_eff) and ρ_dry(φ) show that the largest impedance changes occur for high porosities and low effective pressures.
• 6 Uncertainties in K_dry(φ, P_eff) and G_dry(φ, P_eff) derived for individual cores can be used to generate error surfaces for these moduli that represent bounds for quantifying uncertainties in seismic modelling or pressure–saturation inversion.