Study on a Boundary-layer Numerical Model with Inclusion of Heterogeneous Multi-layer Vegetational

1.IntroductionItiswellknownthattheecosystemcangreatlyinfluencebothlocalclimateandgeneralcirculation.Onthenumericalstudyoftheturbulenceinandaboveforestcanopies,alotofsignificantstudieshavebeendone.Inallthesestudies,modelsaregenerallydividedintotwotypes:oneis'K--theory'type(Waggoner,1975;Gross,1987;Gross,1988,Jietal.,1989;Schilling,I991;Dickinsonetal.,1993;Wang,1996),theotherappliesthehigher--orderclosuremethod(Wilsonetal.,1977,Yamada,1982;Yinetal.,1989)ortheLagrangianmethod(Rampach,1987;R…     

Turbulence Statistics Above And Within Two Amazon Rain Forest Canopies

The turbulence structure in two Amazon rain forestswas characterised for a range of above-canopystability conditions, and the results compared withprevious studies in other forest canopies and recenttheory for the generation of turbulent eddies justabove forest canopies. Three-dimensional wind speedand temperature fluctuation data were collectedsimultaneously at up to five levels inside and abovetwo canopies of 30–40 m tall forests, during threeseparate periods. We analysed hourly statistics, jointprobability distributions, length scales, spatialcorrelations and coherence, as well as power spectraof vertical and horizontal wind speed.The daytime results show a sharp attenuation ofturbulence in the top third of the canopies, resultingin very little movement, and almost Gaussianprobability distributions of wind speeds, in the lowercanopy. This contrasts with strongly skewed andkurtotic distributions in the upper canopy. At night,attenuation was even stronger and skewness vanishedeven in the upper canopy. Power spectral peaks in thelower canopy are shifted to lower frequencies relativeto the upper canopy, and spatial correlations andcoherences were low throughout the canopy. Integrallength scales of vertical wind speed at the top of thecanopy were small, about 0.15 h compared to avalue of 0.28 h expected from the shear lengthscale at the canopy top, based on the hypothesis that theupper canopy air behaves as a plane mixing layer. Allthis suggests that, although exchange is not totallyinhibited, tropical rain forest canopies differ from other forests in that rapid, coherentdownward sweeps do not penetrate into the lowercanopy, and that length scales are suppressed. This isassociated with a persistent inversion of stability inthat region compared to above-canopy conditions. Theinversion is likely to be maintained by strong heatabsorption in the leaves concentrated near thecanopy top, with the generally weak turbulence beingunable to destroy the temperature gradients over thelarge canopy depth.     

NUMERICAL SIMULATIONS OF TURBULENT FLOW IN AND ABOVE PLANT CANOPIES

The turbulent flow in and above plant canopies is of fundamental importance to the understanding oftransport processes of momentum,heat and mass between plant canopies and atmosphere,and to microme-teorology.The Reynolds stress equation model(RSM)has been applied to calculate the turbulence in cano-pies in this paper.The calculated mean wind velocity profiles,Reynolds stress,turbulent kinetic energy andviscous dissipation rate in a corn canopy and a spruce forest are compared with field observed data and withWilson's and Shaw's model.The velocity profiles and Rynolds stress calculated by both models are in goodagreement,and the length scale of turbulence appears to be similar.     

植被内部及其上方湍流场的数值模拟

植被内部及其上方的湍流流场对于了解植被与大气之间的动量、热量和质量交换过程极其重要。本文把高阶湍流封闭模型的Reynolds应力方程模型(RSM)应用于植被湍流的计算,得到了风速、湍流动能、Reynolds应力及能量耗散率的垂直分布,与现场观测数据比较,甚为满意。     

An Analytical Model for Mean Wind Profiles in Sparse Canopies

Existing analytical models for mean wind profiles within canopies are applicable only in dense canopy scenarios, where all momentum is absorbed by canopy elements and, hence, the effect of the ground on turbulent mixing is not important. Here, we propose a new analytical model that can simulate mean wind profiles within sparse canopies under neutral conditions. The model adopts a linearized canopy-drag parametrization and a first-order turbulence closure scheme taking into account the effects of both the ground and canopy elements on turbulent mixing. The resulting wind profile within a sparser canopy appears to be more like a logarithmic form, with the no-slip condition at the ground being satisfied. The analytical solution converges exactly to the standard surface-layer logarithmic wind profile in the case of zero canopy density (i.e., no-canopy scenario) and tends to be an exponential wind profile for a dense canopy; this feature is unique compared with existing analytical models for canopy wind profiles. Results from the new model are in good agreement with those from laboratory experiments and numerical simulations.     

上海市郊林带附近晴天地表热量平衡特征的分析

林带附近的热量平衡各分量的变化体现了林带对周围近地大气环境的影响.本文根据上海市郊林带附近温、湿、风梯度及净辐射观测资料,分析了林带附近冬夏晴天热量平衡各分量的特征,结果表明:夏季林带附近的净辐射比非林带小,冬季则比非林带大;林带对风速有减弱作用,林带附近的湍流输送较弱,因而林带附近热量和水汽量输送较小;林带附近有植物蒸腾,蒸散耗热量较大,为热量平衡中主要支出项;土壤热通量变化与近地面地温变化有关;林带附近较大的蒸散耗热和较弱的湍流输送有利于有利林带附近土壤水分的储存,并使周围湿润,但高温或低温时,湿度增加会引起人体不适,在林带规划上要充分考虑以上特点.     

On the downward transport of turbulent kinetic energy in the surface layer over plant canopies

Downward fluxes of turbulent kinetic energy have been frequently observed in the air layer just above plant canopies. In order to investigate the mechanism for such downward transport, analysis of observational data is attempted. Height-dependency of turbulent kinetic energy flux and turbulence statistics including higher order moments is represented as a function of a non-dimensional height z/H, where z is an observational height and H an average height of plant canopies. Downward fluxes and non-Gaussianity of wind velocity fluctuations are predominant just above plant canopies and decrease with increasing height. The downward flux is closely related to the high intensity of turbulence and the non-Gaussianity of wind velocity fluctuations, especially with a positive skewness in the longitudinal wind and a negative skewness in the vertical wind. The analysis method of conditional sampling and averaging is applied to the present observations. The results show that the predominance of the intermittent inrush phase over the intermittent ejection phase leads to the above-mentioned non-Gaussianity. Finally, a simple explanation is given in order to interpret the turbulent flow structure in the air layer near the plant canopies, which is associated with the downward energy transport process.     

Numerical studies on the two-dimensional flow in horizontally homogeneous canopy layers

The two-dimensional equation of motion containing the pressure gradient and Coriolis force is numerically solved for the wind field in and above the layers of a horizontally homogeneous canopy with a vertical distribution of leaf-area densities. The solution shows that, in the case of descending through the canopy, the wind vector turns with an angle which depends on the profile of leaf-area densities. In particular, for the canopy of a forest consisting of upper layers with higher densities and lower layers with smaller densities, the turning is striking; a secondary maximum in wind profile appears in the lower layers.Variations of the aerodynamic parameters for the flow above the canopy are indicated with respect to the leaf-area density. The roughness length varies in such a manner that a maximum appears in intermediate density values, depending on the shape of the profile of leaf-area density. In the case of very dense canopies, the shearing stress acting on the flow above the canopy is determined by the contribution from only the upper canopy elements, but not by that from the lower parts of the canopy.     

Dawn‐to‐dusk evolution of air turbulence,temperature and sensible and latent heat fluxes above a forest canopy: Concepts,model and field comparisons

Abstract

Dawn‐to‐dusk evolution of air turbulence, sensible heat and latent heat above a forest during cloud‐free or near‐cloud‐free summer conditions is modelled by way of a system of differential equations. Temperatures in and above the canopy, near canopy‐top wind velocities, early morning leaf moisture (dew) and afternoon canopy ventilation (i.e. heat released from the canopy and from below the canopy) are included in the mathematical treatment. Computed results are compared with field data for atmospheric temperature and wind speed profiles up to 1200 m, within‐canopy temperature, and canopy‐level radiation, turbulent fluxes and wind speeds. Data were collected at a central New Brunswick mixed‐wood forest site dominated by spruce (Picea spp. ) and shade‐tolerant hardwoods for four representative summer days. It was found that the effective canopy temperature was not only affected by insolation, but also by the extent of canopy ventilation and the amount of dew on the foliage. The growth of the mixing layer was affected by canopy ventilation and by above‐canopy wind speeds. Model calculations closely simulated the meteorological observations.     

Coherent eddies and temperature structure functions for three contrasting surfaces. Part I: Ramp model with finite microfront time

Air temperature time series within and above canopies reveal ramp patternsassociated with coherent eddies that are responsible for most of thevertical transport of sensible heat. Van Atta used a simple step-changeramp model to analyse the coherent part of air temperature structurefunctions. However, his ocean data, and our own measurements for aDouglas-fir forest, straw mulch, and bare soil, reveal that even withoutlinearization his model cannot account for the observed decrease of thecubic structure function for small time lag. We found that a ramp model inwhich the rapid change at the end of the ramp occurs in a finite microfronttime can describe this decrease very well, and predict at least relativemagnitudes of microfront times between different surfaces. Averagerecurrence time for ramps, determined by analysis of the cubic structurefunction with the new ramp model, agreed well with values determined usingthe Mexican Hat wavelet transform, except at lower levels within theforest. Ramp frequency above the forest and mulch scaled very well withwind speed at the canopy top divided by canopy height. Within the forest,ramp frequency did not vary systematically with height. This is inaccordance with the idea that large-scale canopy turbulence is mostlygenerated by instability of the mean canopy wind profile, similar to aplane mixing layer. The straw mulch and bare soil experiments uniquelyextend measurements of temperature structure functions and ramp frequencyto the smallest scales possible in the field.     

Hilbert方法在大气边界层湍流特征分析中的有效性

介绍一种新的建立在经验模态分解(EMD)方法基础上的非线性、非平稳数据分析技术一Hilbert分析技术,并首次将其应用于大气边界层(PBL)湍流数据的分析,初步探讨了其在PBL湍流研究中的有效性.通过对城市与森林冠层上湍流资料的能量分布特征和统计平稳度进行分析、比较,结果表明:Hilbert谱分析能有效地对PBL湍流信号进行分析.它的边缘谱分析能够有效地探测PBL湍流信号的能量分布特征,统计平稳度分析也能有效地给出PBL湍流信号平稳性的定量化测量,这些将有助于建立合适的数据质量控制方法,以及对现有空气质量与扩散模式中扩散参数的计算加以改进.文中个例分析中,城市和森林冠层上空的湍流有一定相似性,湍流混合都比较充分,但森林冠层上湍流信号的能量更多地集中在大尺度湍涡,且扰动风速的高频部分具有更强的间歇性.对于相近高度的湍流信号来说,多数情况下,森林冠层上相同尺度的湍涡表现得比城市冠层上更不稳定,但湍涡的含能量要更低.     

On the determination of zero-plane displacement and roughness length for flow over forest canopies

This paper discusses the importance of the aerodynamic characteristics of forest and other similar canopies to modelling of boundary-layer flow and to estimating the diffusivity coefficients of turbulence transfer mechanisms over such canopies.The hypothesis of Marunich (1971) reported by Tajchman (1981) that the zero-plane displacement, d, equals the upward displacement of the flow trajectory, is critically examined. It is concluded that Marunich's hypothesis is conceptually incorrect and that calculations of d based on Marunich's hypothesis are inherently in error.This paper presents a method based on the mass conservation principle and uses wind profiles in and above a forest canopy as the sole input for determining d, z ₀ and u _*.Sensitivities of calculated results to measurements errors of wind profile data are evaluated. It is found that an error of less than 1% in wind in the logarithmic regime above the canopy can introduce up to 100% errors in calculated values of d, z ₀ and u _*. It is also found that the high sensitivity to wind data accuracy, characteristic of the present method, can be used as a guide for the selection of high quality canopy wind data.     

Are Urban-Canopy Velocity Profiles Exponential?

Using analyses of data from extant direct numerical simulations and large-eddy simulations of boundary-layer and channel flows over and within urban-type canopies, sectional drag forces, Reynolds and dispersive shear stresses are examined for a range of roughness densities. Using the spatially-averaged mean velocity profiles these quantities allow deduction of the canopy mixing length and sectional drag coefficient. It is shown that the common assumptions about the behaviour of these quantities, needed to produce an analytical model for the canopy velocity profile, are usually invalid, in contrast to what is found in typical vegetative (e.g. forest) canopies. The consequence is that an exponential shape of the spatially-averaged mean velocity profile within the canopy cannot normally be expected, as indeed the data demonstrate. Nonetheless, recent canopy models that allow prediction of the roughness length appropriate for the inertial layer’s logarithmic profile above the canopy do not seem to depend crucially on their (invalid) assumption of an exponential profile within the canopy.     

The wind speed shear in the case of stable stratification and the scales of the similarity theory

The wind speed shear in the case of stable stratification in the linear part of the profile spreading high above the surface layer of constant flows is studied using the data of long-term sodar measurements in the atmospheric boundary layer. The wind speed shear in this part remains almost invariable during several hours at the significant change in parameters of the Monin-Obukhov theory. The length of this linear part can be associated with the layer of the critical Richardson number. In the case of the pronounced temperature inversion (with the positive gradient of more than 1°C per 100 m), the wind speed profile is close to the linear function in the most part of the nocturnal mixing layer. Proposed is a scale characterizing the height of the surface layer of constant flows.     

High resolution flight observations and numerical simulations: horizontal variability in the wintertime boreal boundary layer

Summary  High resolution aircraft observations made along flight tracks over inhomogeneous surface in the late wintertime boreal zone are described and compared to 2D mesoscale model simulations with surface properties defined at 2 km resolution from maps. All observations displayed the expected small-scale turbulence. On top of that, the near-surface wind speeds (but not directions) showed mesoscale variations related to local topography and roughness. Upward (but not downward) SW and LW radiative fluxes and ground temperature also displayed mesoscale variability; in SW radiation this was clearly due to local albedo changes. In the sensible heat flux there was strong horizontal variation near the surface in correlation with surface types. The above observed mesoscale along-track variations were reasonably well represented by the mesoscale model simulation. The track-averaged observed sensible and latent heat flux profiles were in rough agreement with a mixing length approach, which used the track-averaged wind, temperature and moisture profiles as input (mimicking a first-order turbulence closure scheme of a GCM). Received September 20, 1999 Revised January 21, 2000     

A parameterization for modelling the meteorological effects of tall forests — A case study of a large clearing

A parameterization scheme has been developed to describe the effects of a tall forest on the mean structure of the atmospheric boundary layer (ABL). The main advantage of the scheme is that dynamical and thermodynamical effects of a forest surface can be simulated satisfactorily using only a coarse-grid resolution within numerical models. Thereby, the canopy layer is parameterized as a quasi-subgrid phenomenon. This makes it possible to study meteorological phenomena within the ABL in a very economical way (with respect to computational time) whereby, nevertheless, more detailed information concerning the forest surface is taken into account than could be done using the same grid resolution and quite simple assumptions describing the canopy, e.g., the effective roughness.The applicability in numerical models is shown by using a slightly modified two-dimensional version of the mesoscale model FITNAH. For comparison, simulations with a high numerical grid resolution within the canopy have been carried out.Model results reproduce the known meteorological phenomena in forested areas, e.g., a stable thermal stratification near the surface during the day, and at night, a neutral — or slightly unstable condition — and, in general, reduced windspeed within the canopy layer.Diurnal variations and spatial distributions of temperature and humidity are found to be similar for both cases. Also, a thermally-induced local circulation system in the vicinity of a large clearing has been simulated satisfactorily.A comparison of the calculated results verifies that the parameterization scheme is quite suitable for simulating the effects of plant canopies on the distributions of meteorological variables in the ABL.     

Pseudo-wavelet analysis of turbulence patterns in three vegetation layers

Ramp patterns in scalar traces such as temperature are the signature of coherent structures. A pseudo-wavelet analysis technique was developed in which ideal saw-tooth patterns of varying size were used as basis functions and fitted to temperature and velocity data. Data recorded from three very different vegetation stands were examined in this study. It was found that the most probable structure duration for the forest canopy was in the range 35–40 s, for the orchard canopy it was 20–25 s and for the maize it was 15–20 s. When expressed in non-dimensional form, the structure duration probability distribution for the maize canopy was about a decade larger than for the forest canopy, with the orchard canopy intermediate. The mean eddy duration versus wind shear relation falls on a narrow band for all three canopies, indicating that wind shear at the canopy top is the determining factor for the scale of the coherent eddies. The inverse of duration and intermittency of coherent structures exhibits a tendency of independence from wind shear at higher wind shear values. Coherent structures transport heat in a more efficient way than do smaller scale, less coherent motions. In all the canopies, the heat flux fractions associated with coherent structures are at least 10% higher than the corresponding time fraction.     

利用TWP-ICE试验资料对比两种边界层参数化方案

利用高分辨率WRF单气柱模式,选取了两种边界层参数化方案(YSU,MYJ),对TWP-ICE(Tropical Warm Pool International Cloud Experiment)试验期间的个例进行数值模拟,比较了两种方案对边界层结构、云和降水模拟的影响。结果表明:季风活跃期,YSU方案模拟的湍流交换系数较小,湍流混合偏弱,边界层内热通量偏小,使地表热量和水汽不易向上输送,水汽含量在近地表明显偏多,而在边界层及其以上大气层具有显著的干偏差,因此该方案模拟的云中液态水和固态水含量偏低,云量偏少,降水率偏小;MYJ方案对于季风活跃期的边界层结构具有较好的模拟能力,其模拟的云和降水更为准确。季风抑制期,MYJ方案模拟的夜间边界层结构存在较大误差,这是因为该方案模拟的夜间湍流交换系数较大,湍流混合偏强,边界层内热通量偏大,模拟的位温和水汽混合比在边界层内随高度变化较小,而观测廓线在边界层内存在较大梯度。季风抑制期两种方案模拟的云和降水均比观测值偏多,方案之间的差异较小。     

Role of land-surface temperature feedback on model performance for the stable boundary layer

At present a variety of boundary-layer schemes is in use in numerical models and often a large variation of model results is found. This is clear from model intercomparisons, such as organized within the GEWEX Atmospheric Boundary Layer Study (GABLS). In this paper we analyze how the specification of the land-surface temperature affects the results of a boundary-layer scheme, in particular for stable conditions. As such we use a well established column model of the boundary layer and we vary relevant parameters in the turbulence scheme for stable conditions. By doing so, we can reproduce the outcome for a variety of boundary-layer models. This is illustrated with the original set-up of the second GABLS intercomparison study using prescribed geostrophic winds and land-surface temperatures as inspired by (but not identical to) observations of CASES-99 for a period of more than two diurnal cycles. The model runs are repeated using a surface temperature that is calculated with a simple land-surface scheme. In the latter case, it is found that the range of model results in stable conditions is reduced for the sensible heat fluxes, and the profiles of potential temperature and wind speed. However, in the latter case the modelled surface temperatures are rather different than with the original set-up, which also impacts on near-surface air temperature and wind speed. As such it appears that the model results in stable conditions are strongly influenced by non-linear feedbacks in which the magnitude of the geostrophic wind speed and the related land-surface temperature play an important role.     

尺度自适应大气边界层参数化改进及其对一次海雾的数值模拟研究

大气边界层湍流运动是地球大气运动最重要的能量输送过程之一.当数值模式分辨率接近活跃含能湍涡长度尺度时,湍流运动被部分解析,被称为"灰色区域",传统的边界层方案不适合此时模式湍流问题的描述.为了提高模式边界层方案在包括"灰色区域"的不同网格尺度上的描述能力,适应不同分辨率模式的需要,在雷诺平均湍流理论基础上,修正Mell...